2021 Mary Harris Prizes Essays
Jack Walker III: A Living Document (1st Place Winner)
The Mary Harris Prizes essay contest challenges writers to explore the history of Coshocton County, Ohio--specifically the 18th century. Anticipating that Mary Harris (a woman of local significance), herself, would be a popular topic, the rules include a warning about misinformation. Older accounts of Harris are apparently unreliable, so prospective entrants are steered toward a recent publication that sets the record straight (“Mary,” 2021). The warning is also a general reminder of how vital objectivity is to all non-fiction research. A flexible, objective approach helps counter the mental habits that can influence an author’s work: the tendency to only look for evidence that supports their preconceived ideas (especially regarding issues in which they have a personal stake), to be more dismissive of evidence that contradicts those ideas, and to stick with the ideas long after they have been thoroughly discredited (Galef, 2016; McRaney: 27-31). So, it is noteworthy, that from the outset, contest organizers acknowledge how history books sometimes need revision, even when that means discarding chapters long accepted as truth.
I have entered the Mary Harris Prizes on two previous occasions. For both essays, avoiding personal bias was a priority from the beginning. Due to the nature of frontier Ohio, my writing would have to touch on, at least indirectly, issues about which I had long-standing opinions: colonialism, religious conversion, the death and displacement of native populations. These topics were simply unavoidable. However, I wasn’t writing works of criticism or news editorials. Whether it be on the migration of Lenapé people to Ohio, the violence at their village of Goshachgunk (Coshocton’s predecessor), or the attention they received from Moravian missionaries, I left any value judgments up to readers (Walker, 2017). By simply reporting facts, it was not my job to judge the morality or ethics of an action--except for those of my own as the author. And yet, it’s important to admit that perfect objectivity is impossible. Once every precaution is taken, non-fiction can still be influenced by subconscious feelings. Sheer stubbornness can be a factor, as well.
During work on my second contest essay, I faced an obstacle more challenging than personal bias. A discovery made late in the revision process cast doubt on the validity of key sources. On the one hand, it was great to have caught this before submitting the writing. Of course, on the other hand, it meant accepting my approach was wrong and starting over. This was a frustrating experience, but it should have been easy. I didn’t have any intimate connection to the material, no direct relationship to the people, events, or the time period. It concerned long dead strangers, living in ways completely foriegn to me. Yet moving on took weeks, demonstrating that even loosely held points of view can prove difficult to abandon. In the end, what had started as an essay tightly focused on Lenapé culture, became a chronicle of two species migrating across the globe--with the original theme reduced to a footnote (Walker, 2020). Upon finishing this new version, my mind was set on a project closer to home. The next batch of long dead strangers would be family.
I moved to Coshocton in 1979, and had no links to the area beforehand. While writing about its 18th century history, I began to wonder where my own ancestors lived during the same time period, curiosity which quickly spiraled into a two-year pursuit. Before then, genealogy research kept getting postponed, gathering dust among other projects of intimidating size. So, the interest had always been there, my old questions still waiting to be investigated: Where did each branch of the family emigrate from? Did my mother’s side really contain Native American blood? And most urgently, according to my film buff‘s heart, was I actually related to actor Jimmy Stewart? With the help of leftover essay momentum, I finally had the energy to search for answers.
The first major discoveries concerned ancestors on my mother’s side. They were mostly English and German, not French as the family had always “known,” and, admittedly less surprising, the rumors of indigenous blood proved incorrect, debunked by both genealogy records and DNA test results. In fact, not only didn’t I have any Native American relatives, but my real ancestors (on my father’s British side, at least) had often exchanged violence with the Shawnee, three of them present at the same battle: the Battle of Point Pleasant. Their names were Mitchell Clay, John Cooke, and Ralph Stewart. Still strangers before the fighting, members of their families would eventually meet, intermarry, and prosper across Virginia--mostly on land which would separate into West Virginia during the Civil War. What follows are brief biographical highlights:
1. Mitchell Clay fought in the Battle of Point Pleasant (October 10, 1774), which ended Lord Dunmore's War, a conflict waged between the Colony of Virginia and the Shawnee and Mingo nations. After the natives fell back, a new treaty ended their hunting rights on land bordering the Ohio River. This opened the area up wider for European colonists.
Mitchell and his wife Phoebe were the first settlers of present-day Mercer County, West Virginia. Their property was known as Clover Bottom. In 1783, one day when Mitchell was away hunting, three of the couple's children were killed in a Shawnee attack. After this tragedy, the family moved to present-day Pearisburg, Virginia, where they lived out their lives. The Clover Bottom land is now home to Clay Memorial Park, where a statue called "Agony in Stone" is dedicated to Mitchell, Phoebe, and the lost children (Bowman: 429-430; Coppola “Agony”; Coppola “Historical”).
2. On May 4, 1766, John Cooke and Nellie Pemberton were lured on board a London ship by the promise of a free sightseeing tour. Neither of them (along with the rest of the human cargo), would ever return home. Instead, they were shipped to Virginia as indentured servants. Nellie and John bonded during this voyage, and upon arrival, the same plantation owner bought them. After working off his own "debt," John stayed on to help finish Nellie's term of servitude. They used their freedom to get married and settle in the Shenandoah Valley.
John's name appears on a roster of soldiers at the Battle of Point Pleasant, but he was on a supply run during the actual fighting. Two years into the Revolutionary War (1777), he joined the 8th Virginia Regiment of the Continental Army. Nellie, now raising their young children, moved to Fort Donaldson while he was away. John fought in the battles of Monmouth, New Jersey, and Stony Point, New York. For his service, he received several land grants, allowing his family to become the first settlers of present-day Wyoming County, West Virginia (Blankenship, 2017; Bowman: 125, 319, 329-332; Cook: 1-4).
3. When Ralph Stewart was eight years old, his father was taken by a group of Shawnee and burned at the stake. From this point on, Ralph expressed a hatred for all Native Americans. In 1773, he became a Captain of Indian Rangers under Lord Dunmore (a commission which was later renewed by Patrick Henry). The now Captain Stewart helped defeat Chief Cornstalk, leader of the Shawnee forces, near present-day Point Pleasant, West Virginia. During the Revolutionary War, he fought at Guilford Courthouse, in Charlottesville, and later at Yorktown, where his troop stood guard over the vanquished Lord Cornwallis.
Ralph’s second wife was Mary Clay, a daughter of Mitchell and Phoebe Clay’s. Ralph and Mary became the second settlers of present-day Wyoming County. They built their cabin just a few miles from the Cooke homestead. John and Ralph became good friends, and their offspring were dependent on one another for marriages. In fact, it is now considered nearly impossible to be related to only one of the two families (Blankenship, 2012; Bowman: 353).
Years after the Battle of Point Pleasant, one of Ralph Stewart’s sons was supposedly kidnapped by Shawnee and taken to Canada. Some versions of the tale say the kidnapper was even a vengeful son of Chief Cornstalk’s. The boy was held for four years, according to one anecdote--or maybe it was seven, as a different person claims. Either way, he escaped his captors and completed an eleven day journey to get back home, which included paddling a canoe across Lake Erie. It’s tempting to believe this story, as it creates a dramatic link between two pairs of fathers and sons who stood on opposite sides of the same conflict, one pair Shawnee and one Scottish. Unfortunately, if there are any scraps of truth here, they have been buried by inconsistencies and embellishments. Safer to let it all go.
But how accurate are the rest of my family portraits? Will their biographies, like that of Coshocton’s Mary Harris, need correction in the future? If so, the work will likely depend on a different relative. Digging back as far as the 15th century, I have exhausted my genealogy motivation. The last of that energy was spent failing to track the Walker line overseas. After believing once that I had succeeded (to the point where exciting details were shared with friends and family), later research identified a weakness in my primary source. Months of progress vanished. I was embarrassed at having jumped to conclusions, and upset at having spread misinformation. The fallout was similar to that of my second Mary Harris Prizes essay, only this time I had a personal stake in the project. I had a strong attachment to its findings, and to the audience who would receive them. If a relatively trivial idea can still be uncomfortable to abandon, there was true pain in severing a cherished one.
So, in the spring of 2021, after checking files at a Marion, Ohio cemetery, I brought my genealogy work to a close. How have my feelings been changed by the experience? Did I view certain issues differently? Were my negative opinions of colonialism held with less self-righteousness? I had already known, in general, how European settlers had benefited from Native American displacement, but never knew to what degree my ancestors were involved. And of course I knew about the violence performed both by and against the indigenous populations, but didn’t know that any of my ancestors were direct victims and/or perpetrators. Reflecting on these new insights has left me viewing colonial history less narrowly, a touch more compassion felt for all sides.
I have explained my responsibilities as an author. While the importance of research integrity cannot be overstated, effective non-fiction also depends on the reader. Everyone who opens a book brings their own perspective to its pages. That perspective can distort how words are received and interpreted, which leads back to questions about objectivity: Why do people read history? Are they looking for reassurance, to maintain the ideas that have already formed their identity? (Such as believing they’re related to actor Jimmy Stewart, as a purely hypothetical example.) Or are they prepared to accept challenging new information? (Such as finding zero classic movie stars in their family tree.) Adapting to change takes an effort some readers might be unwilling to make, but doing so is vital to a relationship built on shared truth. Without an agreement on the difference between fact and opinion, there can be no trustworthy communication (McRaney: 27-31).
All of non-fiction, whether from centuries past, decades ago, or yesterday’s headlines, is a living document. History stays open to revision, correction, and expansion, for when discoveries of new evidence reshape and/or debunk previous accounts. After a researcher uncovers proof that an old story is inaccurate, they sometimes face a “shoot the messenger” situation, where the public is less than grateful for the news. While it’s easy to criticize such stubbornness, everyone has similar moments of inflexibility, especially around topics connected to deep emotion--and finger-pointing will likely cause further defensiveness. This is why critiques tend to be more useful when focused within, on a person’s own thought process, where resisting bias is possible with a research mindset: staying objective, asking uncomfortable questions, confronting potential flaws in long-held ideas (Galef, 2016). But how many feel that resisting bias is worth all the work? To become more receptive to facts, less vulnerable to misinformation, and to better communicate their opinions with civility, how many people are willing to take on the researcher’s burden as their own?
Bibliography
Blankenship, Paul Ray. “John and Nellie Cooke first permanent settlers of Wyoming County.”
The Wyoming County Report, September 25, 2017, https://www.wycoreport.com/
john-and-nellie-cooke-first-permanent-settlers-of-wyoming-county/article_d56f6042-9ea7-5b21-8c7c-b5da9b6926ec.html.
---. “Many citizens kin to Ralph Stewart.” The Wyoming County Report, October 29, 2012,
https://www.wycoreport.com/news/many-citizens-kin-to-ralph-stewart/article_85c2003f-7d67-5cf6-8892- fbcacb96de69.html.
Bowman, Mary Keller. Reference Book of Wyoming County History. Parsons, West Virginia:
McClain Printing Company, 1965.
Cook, Bonnie Turner. The Family of John Cooke. Parsons, West Virginia: McClain Printing
Company, 2001.
Coppola, Emily. “‘Agony in Stone’ Statue at courthouse depicts sombre history.” Princeton
Times, June 7, 2019, https://www.ptonline.net/community/agony-in-stone-statue-at-courthouse-depicts-sombre-history/article_33132ce6-892d-11e9-b110-f399be221627.html.
Coppola, Emily D. “Historical Clay family memorial statue officially rededicated in new location.”
Bluefield Daily Telegraph, October 20, 2019, https://www.bdtonline.com/news/
historical-clay-family-memorial-statue-officially-rededicated-in-new-location/Article_1358960a-f2de-11e9-8408-d317e132a497.html.
Galef, Julia. “Why ‘scout mindset’ is crucial to good judgement.” Youtube, uploaded by TEDx
Talks, April 4, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3MYEtQ5Zdn8.
McRaney, David. You Are Not So Smart. New York: Gotham Books, 2012.
“Mary Harris Prizes Essay Contest.” Johnson-Humrickhouse Museum, accessed July 19, 2021,
https://www.jhmuseum.org/mary-harris.html.
Walker, Jack, III. “Defying Nature: Saving the Indigenous Languages of North America.”
The Coshocton Review, vol. 2, no. 1, 2017, pp. 14-17.
Walker, Jack, III. “Migration’s Reach: A Journey from Africa to Crowtown.” The Coshocton
Review, vol. 5, no. 1, 2020, pp. 35-39.
I have entered the Mary Harris Prizes on two previous occasions. For both essays, avoiding personal bias was a priority from the beginning. Due to the nature of frontier Ohio, my writing would have to touch on, at least indirectly, issues about which I had long-standing opinions: colonialism, religious conversion, the death and displacement of native populations. These topics were simply unavoidable. However, I wasn’t writing works of criticism or news editorials. Whether it be on the migration of Lenapé people to Ohio, the violence at their village of Goshachgunk (Coshocton’s predecessor), or the attention they received from Moravian missionaries, I left any value judgments up to readers (Walker, 2017). By simply reporting facts, it was not my job to judge the morality or ethics of an action--except for those of my own as the author. And yet, it’s important to admit that perfect objectivity is impossible. Once every precaution is taken, non-fiction can still be influenced by subconscious feelings. Sheer stubbornness can be a factor, as well.
During work on my second contest essay, I faced an obstacle more challenging than personal bias. A discovery made late in the revision process cast doubt on the validity of key sources. On the one hand, it was great to have caught this before submitting the writing. Of course, on the other hand, it meant accepting my approach was wrong and starting over. This was a frustrating experience, but it should have been easy. I didn’t have any intimate connection to the material, no direct relationship to the people, events, or the time period. It concerned long dead strangers, living in ways completely foriegn to me. Yet moving on took weeks, demonstrating that even loosely held points of view can prove difficult to abandon. In the end, what had started as an essay tightly focused on Lenapé culture, became a chronicle of two species migrating across the globe--with the original theme reduced to a footnote (Walker, 2020). Upon finishing this new version, my mind was set on a project closer to home. The next batch of long dead strangers would be family.
I moved to Coshocton in 1979, and had no links to the area beforehand. While writing about its 18th century history, I began to wonder where my own ancestors lived during the same time period, curiosity which quickly spiraled into a two-year pursuit. Before then, genealogy research kept getting postponed, gathering dust among other projects of intimidating size. So, the interest had always been there, my old questions still waiting to be investigated: Where did each branch of the family emigrate from? Did my mother’s side really contain Native American blood? And most urgently, according to my film buff‘s heart, was I actually related to actor Jimmy Stewart? With the help of leftover essay momentum, I finally had the energy to search for answers.
The first major discoveries concerned ancestors on my mother’s side. They were mostly English and German, not French as the family had always “known,” and, admittedly less surprising, the rumors of indigenous blood proved incorrect, debunked by both genealogy records and DNA test results. In fact, not only didn’t I have any Native American relatives, but my real ancestors (on my father’s British side, at least) had often exchanged violence with the Shawnee, three of them present at the same battle: the Battle of Point Pleasant. Their names were Mitchell Clay, John Cooke, and Ralph Stewart. Still strangers before the fighting, members of their families would eventually meet, intermarry, and prosper across Virginia--mostly on land which would separate into West Virginia during the Civil War. What follows are brief biographical highlights:
1. Mitchell Clay fought in the Battle of Point Pleasant (October 10, 1774), which ended Lord Dunmore's War, a conflict waged between the Colony of Virginia and the Shawnee and Mingo nations. After the natives fell back, a new treaty ended their hunting rights on land bordering the Ohio River. This opened the area up wider for European colonists.
Mitchell and his wife Phoebe were the first settlers of present-day Mercer County, West Virginia. Their property was known as Clover Bottom. In 1783, one day when Mitchell was away hunting, three of the couple's children were killed in a Shawnee attack. After this tragedy, the family moved to present-day Pearisburg, Virginia, where they lived out their lives. The Clover Bottom land is now home to Clay Memorial Park, where a statue called "Agony in Stone" is dedicated to Mitchell, Phoebe, and the lost children (Bowman: 429-430; Coppola “Agony”; Coppola “Historical”).
2. On May 4, 1766, John Cooke and Nellie Pemberton were lured on board a London ship by the promise of a free sightseeing tour. Neither of them (along with the rest of the human cargo), would ever return home. Instead, they were shipped to Virginia as indentured servants. Nellie and John bonded during this voyage, and upon arrival, the same plantation owner bought them. After working off his own "debt," John stayed on to help finish Nellie's term of servitude. They used their freedom to get married and settle in the Shenandoah Valley.
John's name appears on a roster of soldiers at the Battle of Point Pleasant, but he was on a supply run during the actual fighting. Two years into the Revolutionary War (1777), he joined the 8th Virginia Regiment of the Continental Army. Nellie, now raising their young children, moved to Fort Donaldson while he was away. John fought in the battles of Monmouth, New Jersey, and Stony Point, New York. For his service, he received several land grants, allowing his family to become the first settlers of present-day Wyoming County, West Virginia (Blankenship, 2017; Bowman: 125, 319, 329-332; Cook: 1-4).
3. When Ralph Stewart was eight years old, his father was taken by a group of Shawnee and burned at the stake. From this point on, Ralph expressed a hatred for all Native Americans. In 1773, he became a Captain of Indian Rangers under Lord Dunmore (a commission which was later renewed by Patrick Henry). The now Captain Stewart helped defeat Chief Cornstalk, leader of the Shawnee forces, near present-day Point Pleasant, West Virginia. During the Revolutionary War, he fought at Guilford Courthouse, in Charlottesville, and later at Yorktown, where his troop stood guard over the vanquished Lord Cornwallis.
Ralph’s second wife was Mary Clay, a daughter of Mitchell and Phoebe Clay’s. Ralph and Mary became the second settlers of present-day Wyoming County. They built their cabin just a few miles from the Cooke homestead. John and Ralph became good friends, and their offspring were dependent on one another for marriages. In fact, it is now considered nearly impossible to be related to only one of the two families (Blankenship, 2012; Bowman: 353).
Years after the Battle of Point Pleasant, one of Ralph Stewart’s sons was supposedly kidnapped by Shawnee and taken to Canada. Some versions of the tale say the kidnapper was even a vengeful son of Chief Cornstalk’s. The boy was held for four years, according to one anecdote--or maybe it was seven, as a different person claims. Either way, he escaped his captors and completed an eleven day journey to get back home, which included paddling a canoe across Lake Erie. It’s tempting to believe this story, as it creates a dramatic link between two pairs of fathers and sons who stood on opposite sides of the same conflict, one pair Shawnee and one Scottish. Unfortunately, if there are any scraps of truth here, they have been buried by inconsistencies and embellishments. Safer to let it all go.
But how accurate are the rest of my family portraits? Will their biographies, like that of Coshocton’s Mary Harris, need correction in the future? If so, the work will likely depend on a different relative. Digging back as far as the 15th century, I have exhausted my genealogy motivation. The last of that energy was spent failing to track the Walker line overseas. After believing once that I had succeeded (to the point where exciting details were shared with friends and family), later research identified a weakness in my primary source. Months of progress vanished. I was embarrassed at having jumped to conclusions, and upset at having spread misinformation. The fallout was similar to that of my second Mary Harris Prizes essay, only this time I had a personal stake in the project. I had a strong attachment to its findings, and to the audience who would receive them. If a relatively trivial idea can still be uncomfortable to abandon, there was true pain in severing a cherished one.
So, in the spring of 2021, after checking files at a Marion, Ohio cemetery, I brought my genealogy work to a close. How have my feelings been changed by the experience? Did I view certain issues differently? Were my negative opinions of colonialism held with less self-righteousness? I had already known, in general, how European settlers had benefited from Native American displacement, but never knew to what degree my ancestors were involved. And of course I knew about the violence performed both by and against the indigenous populations, but didn’t know that any of my ancestors were direct victims and/or perpetrators. Reflecting on these new insights has left me viewing colonial history less narrowly, a touch more compassion felt for all sides.
I have explained my responsibilities as an author. While the importance of research integrity cannot be overstated, effective non-fiction also depends on the reader. Everyone who opens a book brings their own perspective to its pages. That perspective can distort how words are received and interpreted, which leads back to questions about objectivity: Why do people read history? Are they looking for reassurance, to maintain the ideas that have already formed their identity? (Such as believing they’re related to actor Jimmy Stewart, as a purely hypothetical example.) Or are they prepared to accept challenging new information? (Such as finding zero classic movie stars in their family tree.) Adapting to change takes an effort some readers might be unwilling to make, but doing so is vital to a relationship built on shared truth. Without an agreement on the difference between fact and opinion, there can be no trustworthy communication (McRaney: 27-31).
All of non-fiction, whether from centuries past, decades ago, or yesterday’s headlines, is a living document. History stays open to revision, correction, and expansion, for when discoveries of new evidence reshape and/or debunk previous accounts. After a researcher uncovers proof that an old story is inaccurate, they sometimes face a “shoot the messenger” situation, where the public is less than grateful for the news. While it’s easy to criticize such stubbornness, everyone has similar moments of inflexibility, especially around topics connected to deep emotion--and finger-pointing will likely cause further defensiveness. This is why critiques tend to be more useful when focused within, on a person’s own thought process, where resisting bias is possible with a research mindset: staying objective, asking uncomfortable questions, confronting potential flaws in long-held ideas (Galef, 2016). But how many feel that resisting bias is worth all the work? To become more receptive to facts, less vulnerable to misinformation, and to better communicate their opinions with civility, how many people are willing to take on the researcher’s burden as their own?
Bibliography
Blankenship, Paul Ray. “John and Nellie Cooke first permanent settlers of Wyoming County.”
The Wyoming County Report, September 25, 2017, https://www.wycoreport.com/
john-and-nellie-cooke-first-permanent-settlers-of-wyoming-county/article_d56f6042-9ea7-5b21-8c7c-b5da9b6926ec.html.
---. “Many citizens kin to Ralph Stewart.” The Wyoming County Report, October 29, 2012,
https://www.wycoreport.com/news/many-citizens-kin-to-ralph-stewart/article_85c2003f-7d67-5cf6-8892- fbcacb96de69.html.
Bowman, Mary Keller. Reference Book of Wyoming County History. Parsons, West Virginia:
McClain Printing Company, 1965.
Cook, Bonnie Turner. The Family of John Cooke. Parsons, West Virginia: McClain Printing
Company, 2001.
Coppola, Emily. “‘Agony in Stone’ Statue at courthouse depicts sombre history.” Princeton
Times, June 7, 2019, https://www.ptonline.net/community/agony-in-stone-statue-at-courthouse-depicts-sombre-history/article_33132ce6-892d-11e9-b110-f399be221627.html.
Coppola, Emily D. “Historical Clay family memorial statue officially rededicated in new location.”
Bluefield Daily Telegraph, October 20, 2019, https://www.bdtonline.com/news/
historical-clay-family-memorial-statue-officially-rededicated-in-new-location/Article_1358960a-f2de-11e9-8408-d317e132a497.html.
Galef, Julia. “Why ‘scout mindset’ is crucial to good judgement.” Youtube, uploaded by TEDx
Talks, April 4, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3MYEtQ5Zdn8.
McRaney, David. You Are Not So Smart. New York: Gotham Books, 2012.
“Mary Harris Prizes Essay Contest.” Johnson-Humrickhouse Museum, accessed July 19, 2021,
https://www.jhmuseum.org/mary-harris.html.
Walker, Jack, III. “Defying Nature: Saving the Indigenous Languages of North America.”
The Coshocton Review, vol. 2, no. 1, 2017, pp. 14-17.
Walker, Jack, III. “Migration’s Reach: A Journey from Africa to Crowtown.” The Coshocton
Review, vol. 5, no. 1, 2020, pp. 35-39.
Robbie Kehl: The Bug (2nd Place Winner)
A new building being erected is a placard on the timeline of history. It’s a place where lives will grow and stories will be told for generations. People will come and go, but it will stand tall. Other buildings growing around it as the community thrives. When it’s built, the people don’t think of what the future holds for that place. How many will be affected by its mere presence. They especially don’t think of how that building might end.
As a new century began and the 1800’s were upon Ohio, a man was beginning to leave his lasting imprint on an area. Charley Williams had just built his tavern at a fork in the rivers in an area not yet called Coshocton. Charley’s tavern grew in popularity as his name grew equal in notoriety. As Coshocton became a city and Charley its “King”, there was a man named James Calder who decided to build a cabin on the other side of the river from Charley. This would be the origin of a different town called Caldersburg, which was platted in 1816. Calder was trying to compete with Williams and was able to do so since he didn’t have to charge people a 25-cent fee for river transport or roughly $400 today. But Calder was a terrible businessman and was in debt constantly. In just a couple of years, Calder was driven out of business and moved a few miles from his own town.
With Calder’s trade goods store now out of business and more market share viable, a new man stepped up to try his luck at the job. James LeRetilley built his store in Caldersburg in 1825, which would become the first general store built there. LeRetilley would become one of the biggest names in Caldersburg, soon to be Roscoe. The family thrived when they built a large warehouse and began shipping goods to Cleveland. Thanks to people like the LeRetilley’s, the town continued to grow and flourish. In just a few decades from its inception, Roscoe was now a built-up town with all the necessities taken care of. Just a beautiful little town on the river.
Destruction can come at any moment though. A surprise out of nowhere that nobody expects and changes things forever. Nothing was more destructive or more surprising than what Roscoe experienced less than a century after it was created. The year of 1912 started right off with a terrible fire. On January 1, the people of Roscoe woke up to a sad sight. Their handsome brick school building was alight with flames. It was found out that some boys were in the building and were kicked out at midnight by the janitor. It appears that the boys were ringing in the new year, literally, by pulling the bell rope in the school. Belief is that the boys could have been smoking as well, but they carelessly dropped some fire which caught the rest of the building.
The roof caved in and the place was a total loss. The building was valued between $12,000 and $15,000 ($350,000-$430,000 today) but the insurance held was only $4000 ($120,000). More than 200 students were instantly thrown out of school. It’s a terrible event but things were only getting started.
Just 10 days later, as official investigation into the event continued, a few residents of the town got a letter in the mail. The letter basically stated that there was a certain person in the town that didn’t like the school. They didn’t like the teachers and that they “burnt down the school”. It was a warning as well, that if a new school was built, it might end up like the last one. Included in this threat were barns and other buildings. The letter was poorly written and with many errors. This led some people to believe that it was the boys again who wrote that. The letter was sent off for investigation and the whole town was alert and intrigued.
Just 6 days later the letter writer made good on his promise. A coal house belonging to a Fred Landerman was burnt to the ground. Everyone immediately believed it to be incendiary and people were on edge. Mr. Landerman was one of the men that received a letter. His letter said things to the effect of “you are bordin a teacher that is not needed in the school. There is some people don’t want the school the way it has been.” He was warned that his place would be burnt. In the following days, more letters were sent to more people. Some saying “We intend to burn your property and if we can’t do that, we will dynamite the place.”
Bloodhounds were brought in to trace the scent from a bundle of hay and tracks near the previous fire. The bloodhounds led the trail to a house next to Fred Landerman. But it was believed that the bloodhounds were off track. One of the bloodhounds was Jesse James, the same bloodhound that caused the arrest of Ben Dickerson a few years prior. More letters went out.
Then on February 9, Roscoe had its most destructive evening ever. The oldest building in the town was the LeRetilley store, built in 1838. This, the post office and 2 other buildings were all burnt to the ground on the same night. Over $500,000 in damage was done in just one fell swoop. Jay LeRetilley received a letter just the day before, threatening him with burning his place down. He had also received 2 other letters dropped at his door. But instead of taking them to the people they were addressed to, he turned them in to the insurance people. His wife was also boarding a teacher temporarily from Columbus.
Two young men saw a man running from the blaze but didn’t catch him. Then the next morning, the State fire marshal declared that there was enough evidence to make an arrest. But a day later and nothing has changed. A few days after this a handwriting expert is brought in. Rumors keep swirling but nobody is caught. This is also the day when school has started back up. The very next day, another letter comes out. It says “we are not afraid of your blood hounds or fire marshal.”
The day after that, the Tribune received a letter from an anonymous source claiming to be the people of Roscoe. Fed up with the attention of the letters the Firebug was getting, someone spoke out. It stated that if the firebug was caught, the people would burn him to death. It also said that if the Fire Marshal did have a suspect, he better protect him. A couple days later on February 17. It was decided to create the Roscoe Fire Department to battle the firebug. On the 21st, it was reported that evidence of the firebug was found and that the state was very close to solving the case. The next day, the fire marshal stated that no arrests will be made until evidence is brought to a grand jury.
Each day that would pass would be another day on the headline of the paper. Stating new evidence is found but yet nobody is caught. February would end without anyone arrested, but the accusations amongst townspeople and anxiety was growing. Some were hiring personal bodyguards to protect their businesses at night. Nobody was trusting each other and nobody seemed to have any answers.
Some of the townsfolk suggested that it was some local kids who didn’t want to go back to school. There were other theories as well. One of the names being thrown around as a suspect was Fred Landerman. The same man who was boarding a teacher and who received a letter, who also had his coal house burnt down. An elaborate rouse the people thought. Paranoia gripping them. That is, until the morning of March 6, when they woke to read the paper and, on the headline, it stated that Fred Landerman had committed suicide.
He took sleeping pills and told his family. But begged them not to get him help. He even wrote a note to the paper saying that he had been of ill health and that he was not the man burning down the town like some say. He was but 37 years old. An investigation was made into the death but his family was not held liable for not seeking help. They interviewed his widow who stated that Fred constantly spoke of wanting to die. “To go home and die.” And that she never really took him seriously. His mother was also questioned and she said that since he was a little boy, he always said that he wanted to come home to die.
Landerman had spent time in the asylum before. He and his wife were questioned by the state marshal before his death and they were both acquitted. The very next day, the paranoia continued. Reported in the paper, a resident stated that he had known Fred his whole life and that he had spoken to him on the day of his demise. He was walking down the street and met him there for a few minutes. This is completely unlike what the story posted in the paper the previous day had said, that Fred had left to go to his father’s house to die. Then a new theory was passed around. The townsfolk thought that Fred did take the sleeping pills, but he had no intention of dying. He would write his letter of innocence and he would tell his family but when he went to sleep, they would get a doctor and awake him and then he would gain sympathy from the town.
Conspiracies and illogical conclusions were thrown about every way possible in the little town of Roscoe at the beginning of 1912. Anxiety and worry filled it to the brim. Nobody knew what to do or who to accuse. When fear overruns other thoughts, then facts start to get lost. The next day, the Columbus Dispatch posted a story that the Roscoe School Board had received another letter. This time it was so disturbing that it put all the others to shame. They also wrote that the state marshal had declared that since Fred had died, the case is considered to be closed. The Tribune refuted all of this though and poked many holes in this ridiculous story posted by the Dispatch.
On March 9 another letter hit the paper. This was written by Landerman a few weeks before his death. It went into detail about how the suspense of being accused was making him absolutely sick. How he had given the Fire Marshals plenty of time to solve the case but that he could stand it no longer. He sent his hand writing in to be analyzed, he upped the reward money, he even told them to lock him up, so they would know it wasn’t him. But in the end, he said that he would rather die than continue being accused the way he was. Landerman’s funeral was largely attended. The Columbus Dispatch would apologize for their incorrect article. Many townsfolk were indicted, but nobody was ever charged. And the story of the firebug got quieter and quieter over the months, until it faded away and the perpetrator was never caught.
This snapshot of a town at a particular time in history speaks volumes. These beautiful brick buildings that were involved in so many people’s day to day lives, some since nearly the beginning of the town itself, were destroyed. People who rely on each other to survive, became fearful of their neighbors. So much so that they possibly drove an innocent man to suicide. Newspapers dedicated to educating and enlightening the population became caught up in lies and drama. In just a few months, one firebug changed the face of Roscoe for generations. A mystery that will never be solved.
Sources
As a new century began and the 1800’s were upon Ohio, a man was beginning to leave his lasting imprint on an area. Charley Williams had just built his tavern at a fork in the rivers in an area not yet called Coshocton. Charley’s tavern grew in popularity as his name grew equal in notoriety. As Coshocton became a city and Charley its “King”, there was a man named James Calder who decided to build a cabin on the other side of the river from Charley. This would be the origin of a different town called Caldersburg, which was platted in 1816. Calder was trying to compete with Williams and was able to do so since he didn’t have to charge people a 25-cent fee for river transport or roughly $400 today. But Calder was a terrible businessman and was in debt constantly. In just a couple of years, Calder was driven out of business and moved a few miles from his own town.
With Calder’s trade goods store now out of business and more market share viable, a new man stepped up to try his luck at the job. James LeRetilley built his store in Caldersburg in 1825, which would become the first general store built there. LeRetilley would become one of the biggest names in Caldersburg, soon to be Roscoe. The family thrived when they built a large warehouse and began shipping goods to Cleveland. Thanks to people like the LeRetilley’s, the town continued to grow and flourish. In just a few decades from its inception, Roscoe was now a built-up town with all the necessities taken care of. Just a beautiful little town on the river.
Destruction can come at any moment though. A surprise out of nowhere that nobody expects and changes things forever. Nothing was more destructive or more surprising than what Roscoe experienced less than a century after it was created. The year of 1912 started right off with a terrible fire. On January 1, the people of Roscoe woke up to a sad sight. Their handsome brick school building was alight with flames. It was found out that some boys were in the building and were kicked out at midnight by the janitor. It appears that the boys were ringing in the new year, literally, by pulling the bell rope in the school. Belief is that the boys could have been smoking as well, but they carelessly dropped some fire which caught the rest of the building.
The roof caved in and the place was a total loss. The building was valued between $12,000 and $15,000 ($350,000-$430,000 today) but the insurance held was only $4000 ($120,000). More than 200 students were instantly thrown out of school. It’s a terrible event but things were only getting started.
Just 10 days later, as official investigation into the event continued, a few residents of the town got a letter in the mail. The letter basically stated that there was a certain person in the town that didn’t like the school. They didn’t like the teachers and that they “burnt down the school”. It was a warning as well, that if a new school was built, it might end up like the last one. Included in this threat were barns and other buildings. The letter was poorly written and with many errors. This led some people to believe that it was the boys again who wrote that. The letter was sent off for investigation and the whole town was alert and intrigued.
Just 6 days later the letter writer made good on his promise. A coal house belonging to a Fred Landerman was burnt to the ground. Everyone immediately believed it to be incendiary and people were on edge. Mr. Landerman was one of the men that received a letter. His letter said things to the effect of “you are bordin a teacher that is not needed in the school. There is some people don’t want the school the way it has been.” He was warned that his place would be burnt. In the following days, more letters were sent to more people. Some saying “We intend to burn your property and if we can’t do that, we will dynamite the place.”
Bloodhounds were brought in to trace the scent from a bundle of hay and tracks near the previous fire. The bloodhounds led the trail to a house next to Fred Landerman. But it was believed that the bloodhounds were off track. One of the bloodhounds was Jesse James, the same bloodhound that caused the arrest of Ben Dickerson a few years prior. More letters went out.
Then on February 9, Roscoe had its most destructive evening ever. The oldest building in the town was the LeRetilley store, built in 1838. This, the post office and 2 other buildings were all burnt to the ground on the same night. Over $500,000 in damage was done in just one fell swoop. Jay LeRetilley received a letter just the day before, threatening him with burning his place down. He had also received 2 other letters dropped at his door. But instead of taking them to the people they were addressed to, he turned them in to the insurance people. His wife was also boarding a teacher temporarily from Columbus.
Two young men saw a man running from the blaze but didn’t catch him. Then the next morning, the State fire marshal declared that there was enough evidence to make an arrest. But a day later and nothing has changed. A few days after this a handwriting expert is brought in. Rumors keep swirling but nobody is caught. This is also the day when school has started back up. The very next day, another letter comes out. It says “we are not afraid of your blood hounds or fire marshal.”
The day after that, the Tribune received a letter from an anonymous source claiming to be the people of Roscoe. Fed up with the attention of the letters the Firebug was getting, someone spoke out. It stated that if the firebug was caught, the people would burn him to death. It also said that if the Fire Marshal did have a suspect, he better protect him. A couple days later on February 17. It was decided to create the Roscoe Fire Department to battle the firebug. On the 21st, it was reported that evidence of the firebug was found and that the state was very close to solving the case. The next day, the fire marshal stated that no arrests will be made until evidence is brought to a grand jury.
Each day that would pass would be another day on the headline of the paper. Stating new evidence is found but yet nobody is caught. February would end without anyone arrested, but the accusations amongst townspeople and anxiety was growing. Some were hiring personal bodyguards to protect their businesses at night. Nobody was trusting each other and nobody seemed to have any answers.
Some of the townsfolk suggested that it was some local kids who didn’t want to go back to school. There were other theories as well. One of the names being thrown around as a suspect was Fred Landerman. The same man who was boarding a teacher and who received a letter, who also had his coal house burnt down. An elaborate rouse the people thought. Paranoia gripping them. That is, until the morning of March 6, when they woke to read the paper and, on the headline, it stated that Fred Landerman had committed suicide.
He took sleeping pills and told his family. But begged them not to get him help. He even wrote a note to the paper saying that he had been of ill health and that he was not the man burning down the town like some say. He was but 37 years old. An investigation was made into the death but his family was not held liable for not seeking help. They interviewed his widow who stated that Fred constantly spoke of wanting to die. “To go home and die.” And that she never really took him seriously. His mother was also questioned and she said that since he was a little boy, he always said that he wanted to come home to die.
Landerman had spent time in the asylum before. He and his wife were questioned by the state marshal before his death and they were both acquitted. The very next day, the paranoia continued. Reported in the paper, a resident stated that he had known Fred his whole life and that he had spoken to him on the day of his demise. He was walking down the street and met him there for a few minutes. This is completely unlike what the story posted in the paper the previous day had said, that Fred had left to go to his father’s house to die. Then a new theory was passed around. The townsfolk thought that Fred did take the sleeping pills, but he had no intention of dying. He would write his letter of innocence and he would tell his family but when he went to sleep, they would get a doctor and awake him and then he would gain sympathy from the town.
Conspiracies and illogical conclusions were thrown about every way possible in the little town of Roscoe at the beginning of 1912. Anxiety and worry filled it to the brim. Nobody knew what to do or who to accuse. When fear overruns other thoughts, then facts start to get lost. The next day, the Columbus Dispatch posted a story that the Roscoe School Board had received another letter. This time it was so disturbing that it put all the others to shame. They also wrote that the state marshal had declared that since Fred had died, the case is considered to be closed. The Tribune refuted all of this though and poked many holes in this ridiculous story posted by the Dispatch.
On March 9 another letter hit the paper. This was written by Landerman a few weeks before his death. It went into detail about how the suspense of being accused was making him absolutely sick. How he had given the Fire Marshals plenty of time to solve the case but that he could stand it no longer. He sent his hand writing in to be analyzed, he upped the reward money, he even told them to lock him up, so they would know it wasn’t him. But in the end, he said that he would rather die than continue being accused the way he was. Landerman’s funeral was largely attended. The Columbus Dispatch would apologize for their incorrect article. Many townsfolk were indicted, but nobody was ever charged. And the story of the firebug got quieter and quieter over the months, until it faded away and the perpetrator was never caught.
This snapshot of a town at a particular time in history speaks volumes. These beautiful brick buildings that were involved in so many people’s day to day lives, some since nearly the beginning of the town itself, were destroyed. People who rely on each other to survive, became fearful of their neighbors. So much so that they possibly drove an innocent man to suicide. Newspapers dedicated to educating and enlightening the population became caught up in lies and drama. In just a few months, one firebug changed the face of Roscoe for generations. A mystery that will never be solved.
Sources
- Porter, L. (1991). Roscoe: Generations, regeneration. Roscoe Village Foundation.
- Howe, H. (1851). Historical Collections of Ohio: Containing a Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, Etc. Relating to . . . of Its Counties, Principal Towns and Villages. Franklin Classics.
- January 2, 1912 (page 1 of 8). (1912, Jan 02). Coshocton Morning Tribune (1911-1917) Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/january-2-1912-page-1-8/docview/2345461858/se-2?accountid=58034
- January 2, 1912 – April 4, 1912, Coshocton Morning Tribune (1911-1917)
- March 5, 1912 (page 1 of 12). (1912, Mar 05). The Marion Daily Star (1878-1926) Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/march-5-1912-page-1-12/docview/2245055476/se-2?accountid=58034
- Coshocton County Sesquicentennial 1811–1961. (1961). Shaw-Barton.
- Society, C. C. G. (1985). The 1985 History of Coshocton County, Ohio (1st ed.). Taylor Publishing Company.
Martha Richardson: John Chapman: Pleasure or Profit? (2nd Place Winner)
It’s Friday, October 16, 2021, and as he enters Roscoe Village, a strange familiarity encases him. The surroundings seem both familiar and foreign. The brick and mortar buildings lining the street remind him of the many small villages and towns he had traveled through so many years ago as he trekked through Appalachia, spreading his apple seeds as he went. But the people are confusing. Many are dressed just as he is, in clothing typical for life in Ohio in the 1800’s. Others seemed out of place and queer, with some of the women dressed in what appeared to be men’s trousers, with men sporting buttonless shirts in a variety of unknown colors. As he strolls further into the village he glances to the left and nods to the farrier in front of the blacksmith’s shop. Unexpectedly, a breeze blows through Roscoe Village and John Chapman stops in his tracks. A smile crosses his face and memories of a time many years past flash across his mind. The aroma of fresh picked apples simmering in the giant copper kettle evoke memories of a time long ago. Apple butter stirrin’ time is here! This is certainly what might happen if John Chapman, a.k.a. Johnny Appleseed, were to attend the 51st annual Apple Butter Stirrin’ Festival in Roscoe Village this year. But that picture may not be entirely accurate. Certainly the smell of cooking apples might bring a smile to Chapman’s face, but not necessarily because of memories of fresh baked pies or crisp apple strudel. His culinary contributions are much more aligned with hard cider and frontier alcohol. Not that that makes his mark any less significant on the early 1800’s, but perhaps a little less wholesome.
Chapman was born in Leominster, Massachusetts in 1774. Little is known about his early years but he reappears in the early 1800’s as many pioneers are beginning to move westward into the new frontier. Although he is often portrayed as a scraggly vagabond, at an early age he seemed to be a seasoned business entrepreneur and the seeds he planted throughout Appalachia were not only of agricultural value, but of significant financial value to Chapman as well. Beginning in 1792, the Ohio Company of Associates offered one hundred acres of land to settlers who would homestead in areas located past the established permanent settlements in Ohio. But part of the arrangement was that the settlers would need to plant fifty acres of crops; fifty apple trees and twenty peach trees. Chapman took advantage of this arrangement, did the difficult work of planting and developing the acreage and would then sell the developed land to westward bound settlers before moving on to a new location (Pucho, 2017). But the apples that these orchards produced were not usable for pies, apple sauce, or eating. The apple seeds used to grow the orchards were generally “random” apple seeds which produced a variety of different types of apples. The grower never knew what the harvest might yield. In order to get apples that were agriculturally useful, the apple stems would need to be planted back into the original tree root so that the tree would produce the same type of apple as the original. Chapman, a devout Christian, refused to do this as he felt it was interfering with God’s plan. This resulted in the only real use for these apples being converted to cider and alcohol. This, fortunately for Chapman, aligned with the custom of the day which was to essentially drink the alcoholic cider in place of water. At this time in history, with no indoor plumbing, safe water was difficult to produce. It would require extensive boiling, and because of other daily needs, it was much more time efficient to produce and drink cider as opposed to drinking water. This was the case for children as well as the adults. So Chapman’s planting of the apple orchards became a strategic business decision as much as anything else, as there was a constant need for these apples (Calton, 2017).
Most stories and tales portray him as a poor nomad moving across the frontier, usually somewhat unkempt. But he truly was a lover of nature, told stories to the town’s children as he traveled about, and was well-loved by all. Because he often appeared to have little to his name as he traveled throughout Ohio and beyond, townsfolk , who had heard his tales and the many myths which surrounded him, would often open their homes and kitchens to him, so he had few expenses as he continued to homestead and sell his acquired lands to those coming behind him.
Chapman died a very wealthy man by standards of the time and some accounts of his life focus on his keen business sense and apple association with his shrewd business acumen. It almost appears that his spent his life fooling those around him while amassing a fortune for himself. But if you read closely the tales of his life, you might come to an entirely different conclusion.
Certainly Chapman did profit from his years of planting homestead orchards and selling them for profit. But at his center there seem to be a myriad of other qualities that at least equal, if not exceed, his entrepreneurship. A memorial gravesite in Fort Wayne, Indiana, has a marker stating, “He lived for others” (Malesky, 2012), hardly the remembrance for someone who thought only getting ahead. Welcomed almost everywhere he went, he would refuse offers to stay in the homes of those he met, preferring to sleep under the stars. He was truly a conservationist, and literally would not harm a fly. Tales exist of how he would often rescue insects drawn to the outdoor fires and move them to safer places. A story is also told about a night he slept in the snow because he came across a mother bear and her Cubs and did not want to disturb them. He was a devout Christian his entire life, a member of the Church of Swedenborg. His favorite book was the Bible and he carried it with him wherever he went, often reading to others from it. His decisions and life choices were all based on the teachings of his church. Although he sold seeds to
those along the way, he would also them to those who had no money, with a promise that they would pay him later (Kettler, 2020). Because of this kind of generosity, most of his debtors not only repaid their debt, but became his lifelong supporters. It is this vision of Chapman that may, in fact, be his true core; the man who gave willingly to others, who read to small children, who rescued both animals and insects. So, I will leave it to you, the reader, to make up your own mind. As for me, born and raised in Coshocton County, Ohio, and remembering all the local stories and tales of my youth, I have made my own decision. And as I walk down Whitewoman Street during this year’s Apple Butter Stirrin’, with the scent of apple butter wafting through the air, I will pause for a moment and smile, remembering Johnny Appleseed, the eccentric vagabond with tattered clothes, a pot on his head, and a heart of gold. Maybe, just maybe, he will will there in spirit, with a handful of seeds in his hand and a slight grin on his face.
REFERENCES
Calton, C. (2017, September 17). Johnny Appleseed: Land Speculator, Alcohol Dealer,
Capitalist. Mises Notes. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/real-johnny-appleseed/
Kettler, S. (2020, June 11). Seven Facts About Johnny Appleseed. Biography
Newsletter. https://www.biography.com/johnny-appleseed/
Malesky, K.(2012, October 20). The Strangely True Story of Johnny Appleseed. Kee
Facts. https://www.lunch.org/strangely-true-story-of-johnny-appleseed/
Pucho, K. (2017, September 26). Nine Facts That Tell the True Story of Johnny
Appleseed. Mental Floss. https://www.mental floss.com/nine-facts-that-tell-the-truestory-
of-johnny-appleseed/
!5
Chapman was born in Leominster, Massachusetts in 1774. Little is known about his early years but he reappears in the early 1800’s as many pioneers are beginning to move westward into the new frontier. Although he is often portrayed as a scraggly vagabond, at an early age he seemed to be a seasoned business entrepreneur and the seeds he planted throughout Appalachia were not only of agricultural value, but of significant financial value to Chapman as well. Beginning in 1792, the Ohio Company of Associates offered one hundred acres of land to settlers who would homestead in areas located past the established permanent settlements in Ohio. But part of the arrangement was that the settlers would need to plant fifty acres of crops; fifty apple trees and twenty peach trees. Chapman took advantage of this arrangement, did the difficult work of planting and developing the acreage and would then sell the developed land to westward bound settlers before moving on to a new location (Pucho, 2017). But the apples that these orchards produced were not usable for pies, apple sauce, or eating. The apple seeds used to grow the orchards were generally “random” apple seeds which produced a variety of different types of apples. The grower never knew what the harvest might yield. In order to get apples that were agriculturally useful, the apple stems would need to be planted back into the original tree root so that the tree would produce the same type of apple as the original. Chapman, a devout Christian, refused to do this as he felt it was interfering with God’s plan. This resulted in the only real use for these apples being converted to cider and alcohol. This, fortunately for Chapman, aligned with the custom of the day which was to essentially drink the alcoholic cider in place of water. At this time in history, with no indoor plumbing, safe water was difficult to produce. It would require extensive boiling, and because of other daily needs, it was much more time efficient to produce and drink cider as opposed to drinking water. This was the case for children as well as the adults. So Chapman’s planting of the apple orchards became a strategic business decision as much as anything else, as there was a constant need for these apples (Calton, 2017).
Most stories and tales portray him as a poor nomad moving across the frontier, usually somewhat unkempt. But he truly was a lover of nature, told stories to the town’s children as he traveled about, and was well-loved by all. Because he often appeared to have little to his name as he traveled throughout Ohio and beyond, townsfolk , who had heard his tales and the many myths which surrounded him, would often open their homes and kitchens to him, so he had few expenses as he continued to homestead and sell his acquired lands to those coming behind him.
Chapman died a very wealthy man by standards of the time and some accounts of his life focus on his keen business sense and apple association with his shrewd business acumen. It almost appears that his spent his life fooling those around him while amassing a fortune for himself. But if you read closely the tales of his life, you might come to an entirely different conclusion.
Certainly Chapman did profit from his years of planting homestead orchards and selling them for profit. But at his center there seem to be a myriad of other qualities that at least equal, if not exceed, his entrepreneurship. A memorial gravesite in Fort Wayne, Indiana, has a marker stating, “He lived for others” (Malesky, 2012), hardly the remembrance for someone who thought only getting ahead. Welcomed almost everywhere he went, he would refuse offers to stay in the homes of those he met, preferring to sleep under the stars. He was truly a conservationist, and literally would not harm a fly. Tales exist of how he would often rescue insects drawn to the outdoor fires and move them to safer places. A story is also told about a night he slept in the snow because he came across a mother bear and her Cubs and did not want to disturb them. He was a devout Christian his entire life, a member of the Church of Swedenborg. His favorite book was the Bible and he carried it with him wherever he went, often reading to others from it. His decisions and life choices were all based on the teachings of his church. Although he sold seeds to
those along the way, he would also them to those who had no money, with a promise that they would pay him later (Kettler, 2020). Because of this kind of generosity, most of his debtors not only repaid their debt, but became his lifelong supporters. It is this vision of Chapman that may, in fact, be his true core; the man who gave willingly to others, who read to small children, who rescued both animals and insects. So, I will leave it to you, the reader, to make up your own mind. As for me, born and raised in Coshocton County, Ohio, and remembering all the local stories and tales of my youth, I have made my own decision. And as I walk down Whitewoman Street during this year’s Apple Butter Stirrin’, with the scent of apple butter wafting through the air, I will pause for a moment and smile, remembering Johnny Appleseed, the eccentric vagabond with tattered clothes, a pot on his head, and a heart of gold. Maybe, just maybe, he will will there in spirit, with a handful of seeds in his hand and a slight grin on his face.
REFERENCES
Calton, C. (2017, September 17). Johnny Appleseed: Land Speculator, Alcohol Dealer,
Capitalist. Mises Notes. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/real-johnny-appleseed/
Kettler, S. (2020, June 11). Seven Facts About Johnny Appleseed. Biography
Newsletter. https://www.biography.com/johnny-appleseed/
Malesky, K.(2012, October 20). The Strangely True Story of Johnny Appleseed. Kee
Facts. https://www.lunch.org/strangely-true-story-of-johnny-appleseed/
Pucho, K. (2017, September 26). Nine Facts That Tell the True Story of Johnny
Appleseed. Mental Floss. https://www.mental floss.com/nine-facts-that-tell-the-truestory-
of-johnny-appleseed/
!5
Jennifer Wilkes: Pike Township, Coshocton County: A History (2nd Place Winner)
The Old Home Place-
After being married a year and renting, it was time to find our own farm. We’d been driving by ‘the old Darr’ place, porches falling down, plow horses in the field and an old hound dog in the overgrown front yard for over a year now. When my husband stopped by to see if Mr. Darr wanted to sell the place, he said he did, and for the price of a new pick-up truck in 1990 we got a fixer-upper and 10 acres. Glad to have the summer off from teaching, I proceeded to scrape layers of wallpaper from this house built in 1871 while my husband tore into the kitchen floor and ceiling. This old farm house is located in Pike Township, Coshocton Country with a Frazeysburg address and yet I found under the wallpaper ‘Mae McKee 1910 - West Carlisle, Ohio!’. West Carlisle is only two miles down the road and apparently there was once a post office in that tiny town. I would soon find out that “yes”, there once was a U.S Post office there, and so much more!
Pike Township-
“There was a time in this fair land when the railroad did not run and the wild majestic mountains stood alone against the sun. Long before the white man, long before the wheel. When the green, dark forest was too silent to be real.”----Gordon Lightfoot
Pike Township, which is the Southwest corner of Coshocton County, is on the edge of the unglaciated area of Ohio, as you can tell from the rolling hills and large boulders which are cut through by ‘unimportant’ streams. The entire township was once covered by old growth forest except for one patch to the north where early settlers describe ‘destruction by hurricane’ as it contained downed trees and only saplings. The only human structure found was a 10 X 12 crude 3-sided dwelling apparently used by natives, for shelter when out hunting. (Hill,1881)
This area that we now call Ohio is bordered by the Ohio River and Lake Erie but it was once known as the ‘Middle grounds’ back in the late 18th century. (Eckert, 1967) The eastern coast of North America was filling up, pushing numerous Indian tribes further West,(Butler, 2020) and for many tribes, they made these Middle Grounds their home. Early Ohio settler and Frontiersman, Simon Kenton, first learned of this wonderous land through his Uncle Thomas Kenton who survived two trips across the Ohio River in the early 1770’s, to tell the tale of this wild and untamed land. Here is how he tells of the Middle Grounds in Allen Eckert’s carefully researched book, The Frontiersmen:
“The Middle Grounds are so fertile a bean grows like a tree and the grass tickles your belly when you walk. Buffalo are so many they shake the ground and there are deer and elk by the thousands. Birds are so plentiful they make night out of day and a single ball brings down two, three maybe five birds. There are wolves and ‘coons, beavers, mink, otter, bear by the thousands and panthers behind every rock. There’s wildcats as big as hounds, squirrels as thick as lice on hen, turkeys are all over and…..fish nose to tail in every creek.”
Thomas Kenton goes on to explain about why it’s called the Middle Grounds:
“But it’s a red land, it belongs to them what claims it and that mean Indians. There are all kinds there and you just get to think you understands one and suddenlike he’s gone and another takes his place that’s all different. There’re Iroquois, Mohawks, Senecas, Shawnees, Miamis, Delaware, Wyandots, Potamatomies and a dozen or more I’d rather forget. That’s why they call it the Middle Ground. It’s smack in the middle where they all come together and no one owns it but everyone claims it, so the streams is oftener than not red with blood. The whites want that Middle Ground, they want it bad.”
(Eckert, 1967 P. 15)
More information on what this Middle land looked like can be gleaned from the 1751 journals of Explorer Christopher Gist as he described land in southeast ‘Ohio’.
“All the way from Licking Creek (salt creek of Scioto River) to this place is fine rich level land, with large meadows, clover bottoms and spacious plains covered with wild rye; the woods chiefly large walnuts and hickories, here and there mixed with poplars, cherry trees and sugar trees.”
(Grist, 1751)
Just from my own survey of Pike Township in the present day, I can see that meadows were probably few since the area doesn’t have large river bottoms but the vast number of trees would’ve been broken up by numerous fens in some of the low lying stream areas. Even at this time, you can find skunk cabbage, hawk weed and even the occasional hemlock left over from the ice age in the more shaded areas, with many of the trees being a maple, beech and oak mixture.
Frontier Travel-
What was it like to travel to Ohio back in these frontier days?
Traveling west through Pennsylvania on Forbes Road, what is now the Pennsylvania Turnpike, their wagons had to ford every creek and ferry over large rivers.
“We have concluded the reason so few are willing to return from the ‘Western’ country, is not that the Country is so good, but it is because the journey is so bad” Wrote Margaret Dwight who kept a journal of her 600 mile trip in 1810 to Ohio from Connecticut. (Dwight,1810)
It took Margaret 6 weeks to travel the 600 miles and there were seven mountains that she had to climb. Wagoneers pulling commerce shared the road and the numerous Taverns that dotted the route. These Taverns/Inns were filled with drunken wagoneers, crude, dirty beds and scant washing facilities. Margaret and her companions were unable to afford the better Inns, instead, staying at the more inexpensive ‘country’ Inns, she noted the small towns she passed had just the one ‘Main’ street. Travelers were subject to all weather and found themselves walking next to the wagon which traversed “large stones and deep mud holes”. Journeying an average of 10 miles a day, Margaret shares how they were slowed down by the sheer number of persons heading west.
“From what I’ve seen and heard, the state of Ohio will be filled before winter – wagons without number, every day go on and on.” (Dwight, 1810)
These horrible traveling conditions didn’t last for long. By 1834 people were able to traverse to Ohio using a combination of rail road, canals and stagecoach lines. (Dean 2002)
U. S. Military Lands & The First Settlers-
After ‘Mad’ Anthony Wayne and the native Indians signed the Greenville Line Peace Treaty in 1795, Pike Township became a part of the U.S. Military District which stretched east of the Scioto River comprising 4,000 square miles. It was appropriated through Congress on June 1, 1796 and consisted of 2 ½ million acres to satisfy the claims of officers and soldiers of the Revolutionary war. (Hill, 1861)
“It was quickly surveyed into townships, 5 miles square and then divided into quarter townships 2 ½ miles square, each containing 4,000 acres. Finally, even these were further divided into 40 lots of 100 acres each to accommodate soldiers whose warrants entitled them to only that much land.”
(Eckert, 1967 p. 406)
After being married a year and renting, it was time to find our own farm. We’d been driving by ‘the old Darr’ place, porches falling down, plow horses in the field and an old hound dog in the overgrown front yard for over a year now. When my husband stopped by to see if Mr. Darr wanted to sell the place, he said he did, and for the price of a new pick-up truck in 1990 we got a fixer-upper and 10 acres. Glad to have the summer off from teaching, I proceeded to scrape layers of wallpaper from this house built in 1871 while my husband tore into the kitchen floor and ceiling. This old farm house is located in Pike Township, Coshocton Country with a Frazeysburg address and yet I found under the wallpaper ‘Mae McKee 1910 - West Carlisle, Ohio!’. West Carlisle is only two miles down the road and apparently there was once a post office in that tiny town. I would soon find out that “yes”, there once was a U.S Post office there, and so much more!
Pike Township-
“There was a time in this fair land when the railroad did not run and the wild majestic mountains stood alone against the sun. Long before the white man, long before the wheel. When the green, dark forest was too silent to be real.”----Gordon Lightfoot
Pike Township, which is the Southwest corner of Coshocton County, is on the edge of the unglaciated area of Ohio, as you can tell from the rolling hills and large boulders which are cut through by ‘unimportant’ streams. The entire township was once covered by old growth forest except for one patch to the north where early settlers describe ‘destruction by hurricane’ as it contained downed trees and only saplings. The only human structure found was a 10 X 12 crude 3-sided dwelling apparently used by natives, for shelter when out hunting. (Hill,1881)
This area that we now call Ohio is bordered by the Ohio River and Lake Erie but it was once known as the ‘Middle grounds’ back in the late 18th century. (Eckert, 1967) The eastern coast of North America was filling up, pushing numerous Indian tribes further West,(Butler, 2020) and for many tribes, they made these Middle Grounds their home. Early Ohio settler and Frontiersman, Simon Kenton, first learned of this wonderous land through his Uncle Thomas Kenton who survived two trips across the Ohio River in the early 1770’s, to tell the tale of this wild and untamed land. Here is how he tells of the Middle Grounds in Allen Eckert’s carefully researched book, The Frontiersmen:
“The Middle Grounds are so fertile a bean grows like a tree and the grass tickles your belly when you walk. Buffalo are so many they shake the ground and there are deer and elk by the thousands. Birds are so plentiful they make night out of day and a single ball brings down two, three maybe five birds. There are wolves and ‘coons, beavers, mink, otter, bear by the thousands and panthers behind every rock. There’s wildcats as big as hounds, squirrels as thick as lice on hen, turkeys are all over and…..fish nose to tail in every creek.”
Thomas Kenton goes on to explain about why it’s called the Middle Grounds:
“But it’s a red land, it belongs to them what claims it and that mean Indians. There are all kinds there and you just get to think you understands one and suddenlike he’s gone and another takes his place that’s all different. There’re Iroquois, Mohawks, Senecas, Shawnees, Miamis, Delaware, Wyandots, Potamatomies and a dozen or more I’d rather forget. That’s why they call it the Middle Ground. It’s smack in the middle where they all come together and no one owns it but everyone claims it, so the streams is oftener than not red with blood. The whites want that Middle Ground, they want it bad.”
(Eckert, 1967 P. 15)
More information on what this Middle land looked like can be gleaned from the 1751 journals of Explorer Christopher Gist as he described land in southeast ‘Ohio’.
“All the way from Licking Creek (salt creek of Scioto River) to this place is fine rich level land, with large meadows, clover bottoms and spacious plains covered with wild rye; the woods chiefly large walnuts and hickories, here and there mixed with poplars, cherry trees and sugar trees.”
(Grist, 1751)
Just from my own survey of Pike Township in the present day, I can see that meadows were probably few since the area doesn’t have large river bottoms but the vast number of trees would’ve been broken up by numerous fens in some of the low lying stream areas. Even at this time, you can find skunk cabbage, hawk weed and even the occasional hemlock left over from the ice age in the more shaded areas, with many of the trees being a maple, beech and oak mixture.
Frontier Travel-
What was it like to travel to Ohio back in these frontier days?
Traveling west through Pennsylvania on Forbes Road, what is now the Pennsylvania Turnpike, their wagons had to ford every creek and ferry over large rivers.
“We have concluded the reason so few are willing to return from the ‘Western’ country, is not that the Country is so good, but it is because the journey is so bad” Wrote Margaret Dwight who kept a journal of her 600 mile trip in 1810 to Ohio from Connecticut. (Dwight,1810)
It took Margaret 6 weeks to travel the 600 miles and there were seven mountains that she had to climb. Wagoneers pulling commerce shared the road and the numerous Taverns that dotted the route. These Taverns/Inns were filled with drunken wagoneers, crude, dirty beds and scant washing facilities. Margaret and her companions were unable to afford the better Inns, instead, staying at the more inexpensive ‘country’ Inns, she noted the small towns she passed had just the one ‘Main’ street. Travelers were subject to all weather and found themselves walking next to the wagon which traversed “large stones and deep mud holes”. Journeying an average of 10 miles a day, Margaret shares how they were slowed down by the sheer number of persons heading west.
“From what I’ve seen and heard, the state of Ohio will be filled before winter – wagons without number, every day go on and on.” (Dwight, 1810)
These horrible traveling conditions didn’t last for long. By 1834 people were able to traverse to Ohio using a combination of rail road, canals and stagecoach lines. (Dean 2002)
U. S. Military Lands & The First Settlers-
After ‘Mad’ Anthony Wayne and the native Indians signed the Greenville Line Peace Treaty in 1795, Pike Township became a part of the U.S. Military District which stretched east of the Scioto River comprising 4,000 square miles. It was appropriated through Congress on June 1, 1796 and consisted of 2 ½ million acres to satisfy the claims of officers and soldiers of the Revolutionary war. (Hill, 1861)
“It was quickly surveyed into townships, 5 miles square and then divided into quarter townships 2 ½ miles square, each containing 4,000 acres. Finally, even these were further divided into 40 lots of 100 acres each to accommodate soldiers whose warrants entitled them to only that much land.”
(Eckert, 1967 p. 406)
U. S. Military Tract – located east of the Scioto (Dean, 202)
The first settlers to Pike Township were Daniel Ashcraft and his son-in-law Thomas McKee and they establish ‘Ashcraft Ridge’ in 1808. Traveling from the vicinity of the Cheat River in Pennsylvania, they loaded all their worldly goods and family members, and traveled by a huge barge 20 x 40 down the Ohio River to the mouth of the Muskingum River at Marietta. In Marietta their boat was too big to get up the Muskingum River to the town of Zanesville so the draft teams went over land and Daniel rented out 3 keel boats to bring up their goods.
“From Zanesville, he proceeded on the road heading west to the neighborhood of Frazeysburg. Leaving his heaviest goods there, he packed the most necessary articles on his horses through the wilderness to his future home.”
On ‘Ashcraft Ridge’ a bark camp was constructed and served as a temporary shelter but he soon had a cabin built and several years later a large hewed log house. Seedlings for an apple and peach orchards would have been planted at once. (Hill, 1881)
The first settlers to Pike Township were Daniel Ashcraft and his son-in-law Thomas McKee and they establish ‘Ashcraft Ridge’ in 1808. Traveling from the vicinity of the Cheat River in Pennsylvania, they loaded all their worldly goods and family members, and traveled by a huge barge 20 x 40 down the Ohio River to the mouth of the Muskingum River at Marietta. In Marietta their boat was too big to get up the Muskingum River to the town of Zanesville so the draft teams went over land and Daniel rented out 3 keel boats to bring up their goods.
“From Zanesville, he proceeded on the road heading west to the neighborhood of Frazeysburg. Leaving his heaviest goods there, he packed the most necessary articles on his horses through the wilderness to his future home.”
On ‘Ashcraft Ridge’ a bark camp was constructed and served as a temporary shelter but he soon had a cabin built and several years later a large hewed log house. Seedlings for an apple and peach orchards would have been planted at once. (Hill, 1881)
Ashcraft Ridge in Pike Township- Ohio Gazette Map. X – Marks the author’s farm located on Graham’s Ridge.
According to the book, Sara’s Table-Keeping House in Ohio: 1800-1950 , when settlers first arrived in the Ohio wilderness they began by felling trees for their first cabin that was built of an undaubed pen of logs with an animal skin at the door. They deadened the surrounding trees by girdling them and under the dead trees corn was planted. Along the creeks they would grow a cash crop of tobacco and boil sap for maple syrup. Some of the recipes from this book include favorites such as: Corn cob and calf’s foot jelly, suet pudding and calf’s head cheese. Ash cake was made by mixing cornmeal, salt and water and placing the dough on a hot flat stone to bake near the fire.
While homesteading in this vast wilderness, settlers needed to supplement their diet with venison, squirrel meat and even panther meat. They would serve this meat with wild greens, covered with vinegar and a bit of molasses. To preserve the meat they would roll it in saw dust and smoke it. During these early times, the economy was primitive and generally was carried out in barter. For example settlers might exchange ginseng, snakeroot, bear skins and maple sugar for cloth and salt. Clothing had to be made by hand and involved a labor intensive process of shearing sheep, cleaning and carding the wool, spinning, weaving and finally sewing the clothes by hand.
Settlers needed to be their own doctors, treating burns with a poultice of flour and lard. Putrid sores were treated with coal tar and linseed oil and cuts were covered with spider webs. (Porter, 2001)
Daniel Ashcraft, after spending several years of this rough type of living with his family, would have started to see an influx of settlers and a growing need for his goods and services.
“While the country upon all sides was still one vast wilderness, this farm was greatly improved and it wasn’t until 1812 that settlers began to arrive in any numbers.”
Daniel was an excellent mechanic, a black smith and he also ran a copper shop and a tannery. Once the ‘Newark Road’ was opened Daniel provided meals to immigrants costing 12.5 cents and lodging for 6.25 cents. (Hill, 1861)
You might ask why was there an influx of immigration to these Ohio lands at this time? “New England’s economic situation was decidedly bad with much unrest and unemployment. Since General Wayne’s Victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Indian resistance was broken and the development of the interior of the Ohio country became possible.” (Bond, 1941)
When the Revolutionary War was over, the new government had no money to pay soldiers for their service so the soldiers were given a ‘land warrant’ as payment for their service. The amount of land available to be claimed was according to how long the soldiers served and their rank: A captain = 300 acres, lieutenant = 200 acres, Soldier= 100 acres
Ohio was the first state formed out of the Northwest Territory. In 1803 Ohio received statehood and in 1810 Coshocton country was formed. Pike Township formed August of 1818. Land at this time was sold at $1/ Acre or $640/section, which was 640 Acres or 1 square mile. Each township, including our Pike Township, was 6 miles square. One section of land was saved for a school building and to support the school. (Hill, 1861)
It is interesting to note that many Veterans didn’t show an interest in their U.S. Military lands and sold it sight unseen or traded it for land scrip which they could use to buy other public domain land. The land office in Zanesville was open from 1804-1840 for selling land and the Marietta office from 1800-1840. (Dean, 2002)
Immigration to Ohio wasn’t just from those people coming from the East and already living on American soil. There were thousands of people in European countries that were starving; they didn’t have enough land or local work and were reduced to take desperate measures including immigrating to America. Here they heard there was fertile land and the ability to make an honest living. They yearned to live the ‘American Dream’ (Plummer, 2003)
Pike Township Growth-
With the influx of settlers to Pike Township, commerce started to be generated to accommodate the needs of the people. Local mills were established, but the streams were out of power In the dry months so Joshua Lennart built a ‘little horse mill’ that was kept going night and day.
Several distilleries were operated in the township. Corn couldn’t be taken to market in time and so it had be distilled and sold as whiskey. In 1818 two sets of Crawford brothers set up stiles to supply the local demand of whiskey. Also at this time, there were four churches in the township, three in the booming town of West Carlisle and a nondenominational church on Broomstick knob about 2 miles south of town, located up on a tall hill.(Hill, 1861)
‘Progress’ came to Ohio in the 1830’s, when residences were able to purchase: soaps, bought cloth, canned foods and Lucifer matches. Wood cook stoves would have been bought, primitive ice boxes for the kitchen and a privy/outdoor toilet built in the back yard.
Even with a resident doctor at this time, the death rate during epidemics were high. Malaria, Typhoid, Scarlet fever and Cholera swept through the towns. Treatments consisted of Laudanum, burnt charcoal and laxatives to ‘purge the system’. (Porter, 2001)
West Carlisle, the only village in Pike Township, is one of the oldest villages in Coshocton County and laid out in 1817. The town was named after John Perkins who was said to be from Carlisle, PA, and it was named in honor of his old home town. The original plot of West Carlisle included 34 lots, and in 1833 there were three stores, one tavern, one physician, one tannery, two blacksmiths shops, two cabinet makers and two tailor shops. The population was 107 in 1833 and then increased to 154 persons in 1880. A Directory for the Village in 1881 included:
When this Directory was written from the Coshocton County History 1881 book in 1881, it had this to say about West Carlisle:
“West Carlisle, though small, is a stirring village. It is alive, business place and trading center for many miles around.” (Hill 1881)
Back To The Present-
Looking back, exactly 140 years later, I wouldn’t say that West Carlisle is thriving now.
I have seen the shell of a school, with trees growing inside, and now the building only a memory as it’s been demolished. The township hall and doctor’s residence are abandoned and the only remnant left of the ‘thriving town’ is a few residences, a church and a grave yard.
I would imagine before the advent of the automobile it was important to have a local town to buy supplies but now with four major towns to choose from: Coshocton, Newark, Zanesville and Danville locals didn’t need to shop locally. I think it is interesting to note that it takes 30 minutes by horse to West Carlisle from my house and now by car, it takes about that same amount of time to drive to these cities outside the township. But why didn’t West Carlisle ‘take off’ like these other big cities? Why don’t we have big industry here in Pike Township? I think it may be because of the terrain. It’s a very hilly area with elevations over 1,000 feet. In fact, I find it hard to comprehend how 154 people lived on this hilltop town and I don’t understand where all these businesses could have possibly been located! But I believe that that is the beauty of this area. It was most probably one of the last places to be settled because of the terrain and because of the terrain it has not been as popular for business and industry. The entire township now only contains 638 people.
Back on our farm, we have reminders of those first settlers. There’s a remnant of a bank barn, a wall of limestone rock that was once a part of one of the first farms. A Mckee ancestor that used to live in our house visited one day from Seattle, tracing his family roots. There is a white head stone whose owner, John McKee, still keeps watch on a nearby hill.
We have since given the farm, now called the ‘Old Wilkes’ Place to our son. He’s a Warrant Officer in the Army, traveling around the world. But soon he’ll be back and he will call this place home again.
As life goes on in Pike Township, I feel fortunate to be a part of its history and future tucked away in this beautiful Southeast corner of Coshocton County.
Work Cited-
Grist, Christopher. First Explorations of Kentucky. Filson Club Publication. Morton & Co, Louisville. 1751
Porter, Lorle, Phd. Sara’s Table - Keeping House in Ohio: 1800-1950. New Concord Press. Zanesville, Ohio 2001
Van Horn Dwight, Margaret. A Journey to Ohio in 1810. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1913
Dean, Tanya. Along the Trail: A short History of Ohio lands. The State of Ohio. 2002
Hill, N.N. Jr. History of Coshocton County Ohio: It’s Past and Present 1740-1881 Cornell University Libraries. Ithaca, NY. A. A. Graham Publishers Newark, Ohio 1881
Butler, Scott E. Phd. Frontier History of Ohio Carlisle Printing 2020
Eckert, Allen W. The Frontiersman. Bantam Books. 1967
Plummer, Paul. Out behind the Barn: Diary of Liwwät Böke AARP Publisher 2003
Bond, Beverly. History of the State of Ohio Vol- 1 The Foundations of Ohio. OH State Archaeological & Historical Society. Columbus, Ohio 1941
Lightfoot, Gordon. Canadian Railroad Trilogy. Early Morning Productions. 1966
According to the book, Sara’s Table-Keeping House in Ohio: 1800-1950 , when settlers first arrived in the Ohio wilderness they began by felling trees for their first cabin that was built of an undaubed pen of logs with an animal skin at the door. They deadened the surrounding trees by girdling them and under the dead trees corn was planted. Along the creeks they would grow a cash crop of tobacco and boil sap for maple syrup. Some of the recipes from this book include favorites such as: Corn cob and calf’s foot jelly, suet pudding and calf’s head cheese. Ash cake was made by mixing cornmeal, salt and water and placing the dough on a hot flat stone to bake near the fire.
While homesteading in this vast wilderness, settlers needed to supplement their diet with venison, squirrel meat and even panther meat. They would serve this meat with wild greens, covered with vinegar and a bit of molasses. To preserve the meat they would roll it in saw dust and smoke it. During these early times, the economy was primitive and generally was carried out in barter. For example settlers might exchange ginseng, snakeroot, bear skins and maple sugar for cloth and salt. Clothing had to be made by hand and involved a labor intensive process of shearing sheep, cleaning and carding the wool, spinning, weaving and finally sewing the clothes by hand.
Settlers needed to be their own doctors, treating burns with a poultice of flour and lard. Putrid sores were treated with coal tar and linseed oil and cuts were covered with spider webs. (Porter, 2001)
Daniel Ashcraft, after spending several years of this rough type of living with his family, would have started to see an influx of settlers and a growing need for his goods and services.
“While the country upon all sides was still one vast wilderness, this farm was greatly improved and it wasn’t until 1812 that settlers began to arrive in any numbers.”
Daniel was an excellent mechanic, a black smith and he also ran a copper shop and a tannery. Once the ‘Newark Road’ was opened Daniel provided meals to immigrants costing 12.5 cents and lodging for 6.25 cents. (Hill, 1861)
You might ask why was there an influx of immigration to these Ohio lands at this time? “New England’s economic situation was decidedly bad with much unrest and unemployment. Since General Wayne’s Victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Indian resistance was broken and the development of the interior of the Ohio country became possible.” (Bond, 1941)
When the Revolutionary War was over, the new government had no money to pay soldiers for their service so the soldiers were given a ‘land warrant’ as payment for their service. The amount of land available to be claimed was according to how long the soldiers served and their rank: A captain = 300 acres, lieutenant = 200 acres, Soldier= 100 acres
Ohio was the first state formed out of the Northwest Territory. In 1803 Ohio received statehood and in 1810 Coshocton country was formed. Pike Township formed August of 1818. Land at this time was sold at $1/ Acre or $640/section, which was 640 Acres or 1 square mile. Each township, including our Pike Township, was 6 miles square. One section of land was saved for a school building and to support the school. (Hill, 1861)
It is interesting to note that many Veterans didn’t show an interest in their U.S. Military lands and sold it sight unseen or traded it for land scrip which they could use to buy other public domain land. The land office in Zanesville was open from 1804-1840 for selling land and the Marietta office from 1800-1840. (Dean, 2002)
Immigration to Ohio wasn’t just from those people coming from the East and already living on American soil. There were thousands of people in European countries that were starving; they didn’t have enough land or local work and were reduced to take desperate measures including immigrating to America. Here they heard there was fertile land and the ability to make an honest living. They yearned to live the ‘American Dream’ (Plummer, 2003)
Pike Township Growth-
With the influx of settlers to Pike Township, commerce started to be generated to accommodate the needs of the people. Local mills were established, but the streams were out of power In the dry months so Joshua Lennart built a ‘little horse mill’ that was kept going night and day.
Several distilleries were operated in the township. Corn couldn’t be taken to market in time and so it had be distilled and sold as whiskey. In 1818 two sets of Crawford brothers set up stiles to supply the local demand of whiskey. Also at this time, there were four churches in the township, three in the booming town of West Carlisle and a nondenominational church on Broomstick knob about 2 miles south of town, located up on a tall hill.(Hill, 1861)
‘Progress’ came to Ohio in the 1830’s, when residences were able to purchase: soaps, bought cloth, canned foods and Lucifer matches. Wood cook stoves would have been bought, primitive ice boxes for the kitchen and a privy/outdoor toilet built in the back yard.
Even with a resident doctor at this time, the death rate during epidemics were high. Malaria, Typhoid, Scarlet fever and Cholera swept through the towns. Treatments consisted of Laudanum, burnt charcoal and laxatives to ‘purge the system’. (Porter, 2001)
West Carlisle, the only village in Pike Township, is one of the oldest villages in Coshocton County and laid out in 1817. The town was named after John Perkins who was said to be from Carlisle, PA, and it was named in honor of his old home town. The original plot of West Carlisle included 34 lots, and in 1833 there were three stores, one tavern, one physician, one tannery, two blacksmiths shops, two cabinet makers and two tailor shops. The population was 107 in 1833 and then increased to 154 persons in 1880. A Directory for the Village in 1881 included:
- Dry Goods – L.F. Cheney J. W. Almack
- Grocery ---L.P. White
- Wagon Shop –M. Baird & Son
- Blacksmiths (2)
- Shoe Shops (2)
- Cabinet shop (1)
- Carriage Manufacturer – G. W. Copper
- Physicians – Dr. William Smith Dr. James Edward
When this Directory was written from the Coshocton County History 1881 book in 1881, it had this to say about West Carlisle:
“West Carlisle, though small, is a stirring village. It is alive, business place and trading center for many miles around.” (Hill 1881)
Back To The Present-
Looking back, exactly 140 years later, I wouldn’t say that West Carlisle is thriving now.
I have seen the shell of a school, with trees growing inside, and now the building only a memory as it’s been demolished. The township hall and doctor’s residence are abandoned and the only remnant left of the ‘thriving town’ is a few residences, a church and a grave yard.
I would imagine before the advent of the automobile it was important to have a local town to buy supplies but now with four major towns to choose from: Coshocton, Newark, Zanesville and Danville locals didn’t need to shop locally. I think it is interesting to note that it takes 30 minutes by horse to West Carlisle from my house and now by car, it takes about that same amount of time to drive to these cities outside the township. But why didn’t West Carlisle ‘take off’ like these other big cities? Why don’t we have big industry here in Pike Township? I think it may be because of the terrain. It’s a very hilly area with elevations over 1,000 feet. In fact, I find it hard to comprehend how 154 people lived on this hilltop town and I don’t understand where all these businesses could have possibly been located! But I believe that that is the beauty of this area. It was most probably one of the last places to be settled because of the terrain and because of the terrain it has not been as popular for business and industry. The entire township now only contains 638 people.
Back on our farm, we have reminders of those first settlers. There’s a remnant of a bank barn, a wall of limestone rock that was once a part of one of the first farms. A Mckee ancestor that used to live in our house visited one day from Seattle, tracing his family roots. There is a white head stone whose owner, John McKee, still keeps watch on a nearby hill.
We have since given the farm, now called the ‘Old Wilkes’ Place to our son. He’s a Warrant Officer in the Army, traveling around the world. But soon he’ll be back and he will call this place home again.
As life goes on in Pike Township, I feel fortunate to be a part of its history and future tucked away in this beautiful Southeast corner of Coshocton County.
Work Cited-
Grist, Christopher. First Explorations of Kentucky. Filson Club Publication. Morton & Co, Louisville. 1751
Porter, Lorle, Phd. Sara’s Table - Keeping House in Ohio: 1800-1950. New Concord Press. Zanesville, Ohio 2001
Van Horn Dwight, Margaret. A Journey to Ohio in 1810. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1913
Dean, Tanya. Along the Trail: A short History of Ohio lands. The State of Ohio. 2002
Hill, N.N. Jr. History of Coshocton County Ohio: It’s Past and Present 1740-1881 Cornell University Libraries. Ithaca, NY. A. A. Graham Publishers Newark, Ohio 1881
Butler, Scott E. Phd. Frontier History of Ohio Carlisle Printing 2020
Eckert, Allen W. The Frontiersman. Bantam Books. 1967
Plummer, Paul. Out behind the Barn: Diary of Liwwät Böke AARP Publisher 2003
Bond, Beverly. History of the State of Ohio Vol- 1 The Foundations of Ohio. OH State Archaeological & Historical Society. Columbus, Ohio 1941
Lightfoot, Gordon. Canadian Railroad Trilogy. Early Morning Productions. 1966
Annalissa Hankinson: The DElaware Tribe of Coshocton County (Honorable Mention Winner)
Today, if you drive through Coshocton County in Ohio, you will see a fairly ordinary scene for the Midwest. Some scattered houses interspersed with corn. For those of us who call Coshocton county our home, it is a very familiar sight. Two hundred years ago; however, this place was very different than the place you see today. As we move backward in time, we see the towns, the houses, and the farmlands fade. Roads and all other modern human structures disappear. Dams are removed and rivers flow back into their original, uninterrupted paths. Trees spread over ground that were previously developed area and corn fields, covering nearly every inch of Ohio. The place that looked so familiar to us just a moment ago has become a completely different world then the one that we now know.
Trees press together, creating a forest that lasts for days and days. Wildlife fills the woods, running wild through its native land., but this place is not completely uninhabited. There are several different groups of people who live here. As we make our way through this massive forest, we will find their villages, whole nations that have been living here for centuries. Each one is unique. Several different tribes of people live together off the land and rely on each other.
If you were a pioneer traveling into Ohio in the 1700s this is what you would see. Ohio was a wild place, dense with trees. It was said that a squirrel could have crossed the entire state without touching the ground once. It was a different world, one run by people that the European peoples knew nothing about. These tribes of Natives had their own governments, cultures, and ways of life that they had followed for centuries.
By the late 1700s, when white settlers began to make their way into the territory of Coshocton County there were several long established tribes living in Ohio. Most of these tribes lived in peace with one another. In the period before white settlement, Native American tribes in Ohio were comfortable. The two most powerful were the Shawnee in southern Ohio and the Miami in western Ohio. Other Native American tribes that lived in Ohio were the Seneca-Cayuga in central and northwest Ohio, the Wyandot in northern Ohio, the Ottawa in northwest Ohio, and the Lenape or Delaware in eastern Ohio.
This last tribe, the Delaware, is the tribe that lived in the area now known as Coshocton County. They migrated from New Jersey sometime after 1745. There were negotiations with the tribes currently living in Ohio and the move was a peaceful one. They had always been a peaceful tribe. In the early 1600s when the first settlers had made their way to America, the Delaware had willingly shared their land with them. In return, they were slowly forced out of their territory. This caused the migration to Coshocton territory.
The Delaware were often known as the Grandfathers because they served as peacekeepers between other tribes. Though they had proved they could be fierce fighters if it came to it, during their time in the Coshocton they had good relationships with the nearby tribes, which consisted of the Seneca, Wyandot, and Miami.
In addition to nearby tribes, the Delaware had friendly relationships with others as well. During their time in Ohio, they also formed trading relationships with French fur traders. They traded for things like gun, alcohol, and cookware in exchange for the furs. In part because of this alliance, the Delaware tribe fought alongside the French during the French and Indian War later in the 1800s.
Inside of their own tribe the Delaware had a thriving community. Their tribe was made up of three clans: wolf, turtle, and turkey. These clans were matrilineal, which means that they traced their decent through the female line. This means that each clan was made up of a matron, her husband, her sisters and brothers, and her children. When a young man married, he joined his wife’s clan.
The Delaware tribe lived together in villages made up of longhouses, which were made up of grass and bark. Men hunted, fished, and fought on the rare occasions that the Delaware went to war. Women farmed, cooked, made clothes, and raised children. Before white settlers first came in contact with them, back when they were still living in their original lands of New Jersey and Delaware, they fashioned their own tools from sources around them such as shells, bone, and wood. After they came in contact with white settlers and developed friendly relations with the French traders, they bought many of the tools and utensils they used. Clothes were mostly made from deer hide, but also from beaver skin and turkey feathers.
When they weren’t working on everyday tasks that needed to be done, the Delaware tribe participated in contests and games. They admired strength and so played games that reflected that value. They had foot races, archery competitions, and spear throwing. Men and women played group games together. Story telling was also a popular pastime within the tribe.
Things began to change for the Delaware after the French and Indian War. Once France abandoned the Ohio tribes to the British, the Delaware remained loyal to the English colonists. When the Revolutionary War started, the tribe was divided as to where their alliance should lie. Some supported the British, who were their allies, having forbidden the colonizing of the Delaware territory. Many of the Native Americans feared that if the colonists were victorious then the Delaware would be forced from their lands.
These fears proved to be true. After the colonists won the Revolutionary War, they began pushing slowly west. What proved to be so wonderful for America also proved to be the end of life as the Native American tribes knew it. After resisting white settlements for some time, the Delaware surrendered a lot of their land in Ohio after signing the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. In 1829, the Delaware were forced out of Ohio altogether and were made to move west of the Mississippi River. They slowly moved farther and farther west over the years, eventually settling in Oklahoma.
Fast forward again two hundred years. We are back to the familiar farmhouses and sleepy towns. It had been a long time since the Delaware tribe and their Native allies lived in this area. However, two hundred years cannot completely erase the cultures of the past. All over Ohio you can see the marks left by these civilizations. There are the mounds in Newark, left by the ancient Hopewell Indians tribe, which existed long before the Delaware. Then there are the flint quarries near Heath, which were sites used by many different Native American tribes in Ohio over the centuries.
In Coshocton itself, you can see the signs of what used to be Delaware territory. The street running down the center of historic Roscoe is in the exact location of an old Delaware trail that they called White Woman in honor of the first white woman to live in Ohio who lived with the Delaware tribe. The street still bears the same name, leaving a mark on Coshocton county even two hundred years after the tribe left it.
References
Buser, C. A. (n.d.). Wyandots in Ohio. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://wyandotte- nation.org/culture/history/general-history/wyandots-in-ohio/
Delaware Indians.com. (n.d.). History. Accessed October 25, 2021, from http://www.delawareindians.com/
Delaware Tribe.org. (2021). About the Delaware Tribe of Indians. Accessed October 12, 2021, from http://delawaretribe.org/home-page/about-the-tribe/
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). American Indians. Accessed October 5, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/American_Indians
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). Delaware Indians. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Delaware_Indians
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). Miami Indians. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Miami_Indians
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). Ottawa Indians. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Ottawa_Indians
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). Timeline of Ohio History. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Timeline_of_Ohio_History#Early_Historic_Period_to_Statehood:_1650-1803
Ottawa Tribe.com. (n.d.). History Archives Library: The Ottawa Tribe Of Oklahoma. Accessed October 11, 2021, from http://www.ottawatribe.org/history-archives-library/
Shawne Tribe.com. (n.d.). History of the People. Accessed October 5, 2021, from https://www.shawnee-nsn.gov/history
SPHO. (2021). Delaware Tribe of Indians. Accessed October 12, 2021, from https://www.spthb.org/about-us/who-we-serve/delaware-tribe-of-indians/#1491134905128-b2e7d99c-28a3f170-f18e
Touring Ohio.com. (2021). The Shawnee Indians. Accessed October 5, 2021, from http://touringohio.com/history/shawnee.html
Wright, M. H. (n.d.). Cayuga. Accessed October 5, 2021, from http://sctribe.com/history/a-guide-to-the-indian-tribes-of-ok-cayuga/
Wright, M. H. (n.d.). Seneca. Accessed October 5, 2021, from http://sctribe.com/history/a-guide-to-the-indian-tribes-of-ok-excerpts/
Trees press together, creating a forest that lasts for days and days. Wildlife fills the woods, running wild through its native land., but this place is not completely uninhabited. There are several different groups of people who live here. As we make our way through this massive forest, we will find their villages, whole nations that have been living here for centuries. Each one is unique. Several different tribes of people live together off the land and rely on each other.
If you were a pioneer traveling into Ohio in the 1700s this is what you would see. Ohio was a wild place, dense with trees. It was said that a squirrel could have crossed the entire state without touching the ground once. It was a different world, one run by people that the European peoples knew nothing about. These tribes of Natives had their own governments, cultures, and ways of life that they had followed for centuries.
By the late 1700s, when white settlers began to make their way into the territory of Coshocton County there were several long established tribes living in Ohio. Most of these tribes lived in peace with one another. In the period before white settlement, Native American tribes in Ohio were comfortable. The two most powerful were the Shawnee in southern Ohio and the Miami in western Ohio. Other Native American tribes that lived in Ohio were the Seneca-Cayuga in central and northwest Ohio, the Wyandot in northern Ohio, the Ottawa in northwest Ohio, and the Lenape or Delaware in eastern Ohio.
This last tribe, the Delaware, is the tribe that lived in the area now known as Coshocton County. They migrated from New Jersey sometime after 1745. There were negotiations with the tribes currently living in Ohio and the move was a peaceful one. They had always been a peaceful tribe. In the early 1600s when the first settlers had made their way to America, the Delaware had willingly shared their land with them. In return, they were slowly forced out of their territory. This caused the migration to Coshocton territory.
The Delaware were often known as the Grandfathers because they served as peacekeepers between other tribes. Though they had proved they could be fierce fighters if it came to it, during their time in the Coshocton they had good relationships with the nearby tribes, which consisted of the Seneca, Wyandot, and Miami.
In addition to nearby tribes, the Delaware had friendly relationships with others as well. During their time in Ohio, they also formed trading relationships with French fur traders. They traded for things like gun, alcohol, and cookware in exchange for the furs. In part because of this alliance, the Delaware tribe fought alongside the French during the French and Indian War later in the 1800s.
Inside of their own tribe the Delaware had a thriving community. Their tribe was made up of three clans: wolf, turtle, and turkey. These clans were matrilineal, which means that they traced their decent through the female line. This means that each clan was made up of a matron, her husband, her sisters and brothers, and her children. When a young man married, he joined his wife’s clan.
The Delaware tribe lived together in villages made up of longhouses, which were made up of grass and bark. Men hunted, fished, and fought on the rare occasions that the Delaware went to war. Women farmed, cooked, made clothes, and raised children. Before white settlers first came in contact with them, back when they were still living in their original lands of New Jersey and Delaware, they fashioned their own tools from sources around them such as shells, bone, and wood. After they came in contact with white settlers and developed friendly relations with the French traders, they bought many of the tools and utensils they used. Clothes were mostly made from deer hide, but also from beaver skin and turkey feathers.
When they weren’t working on everyday tasks that needed to be done, the Delaware tribe participated in contests and games. They admired strength and so played games that reflected that value. They had foot races, archery competitions, and spear throwing. Men and women played group games together. Story telling was also a popular pastime within the tribe.
Things began to change for the Delaware after the French and Indian War. Once France abandoned the Ohio tribes to the British, the Delaware remained loyal to the English colonists. When the Revolutionary War started, the tribe was divided as to where their alliance should lie. Some supported the British, who were their allies, having forbidden the colonizing of the Delaware territory. Many of the Native Americans feared that if the colonists were victorious then the Delaware would be forced from their lands.
These fears proved to be true. After the colonists won the Revolutionary War, they began pushing slowly west. What proved to be so wonderful for America also proved to be the end of life as the Native American tribes knew it. After resisting white settlements for some time, the Delaware surrendered a lot of their land in Ohio after signing the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. In 1829, the Delaware were forced out of Ohio altogether and were made to move west of the Mississippi River. They slowly moved farther and farther west over the years, eventually settling in Oklahoma.
Fast forward again two hundred years. We are back to the familiar farmhouses and sleepy towns. It had been a long time since the Delaware tribe and their Native allies lived in this area. However, two hundred years cannot completely erase the cultures of the past. All over Ohio you can see the marks left by these civilizations. There are the mounds in Newark, left by the ancient Hopewell Indians tribe, which existed long before the Delaware. Then there are the flint quarries near Heath, which were sites used by many different Native American tribes in Ohio over the centuries.
In Coshocton itself, you can see the signs of what used to be Delaware territory. The street running down the center of historic Roscoe is in the exact location of an old Delaware trail that they called White Woman in honor of the first white woman to live in Ohio who lived with the Delaware tribe. The street still bears the same name, leaving a mark on Coshocton county even two hundred years after the tribe left it.
References
Buser, C. A. (n.d.). Wyandots in Ohio. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://wyandotte- nation.org/culture/history/general-history/wyandots-in-ohio/
Delaware Indians.com. (n.d.). History. Accessed October 25, 2021, from http://www.delawareindians.com/
Delaware Tribe.org. (2021). About the Delaware Tribe of Indians. Accessed October 12, 2021, from http://delawaretribe.org/home-page/about-the-tribe/
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). American Indians. Accessed October 5, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/American_Indians
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). Delaware Indians. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Delaware_Indians
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). Miami Indians. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Miami_Indians
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). Ottawa Indians. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Ottawa_Indians
Ohio History Central. (n.d.). Timeline of Ohio History. Accessed October 11, 2021, from https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Timeline_of_Ohio_History#Early_Historic_Period_to_Statehood:_1650-1803
Ottawa Tribe.com. (n.d.). History Archives Library: The Ottawa Tribe Of Oklahoma. Accessed October 11, 2021, from http://www.ottawatribe.org/history-archives-library/
Shawne Tribe.com. (n.d.). History of the People. Accessed October 5, 2021, from https://www.shawnee-nsn.gov/history
SPHO. (2021). Delaware Tribe of Indians. Accessed October 12, 2021, from https://www.spthb.org/about-us/who-we-serve/delaware-tribe-of-indians/#1491134905128-b2e7d99c-28a3f170-f18e
Touring Ohio.com. (2021). The Shawnee Indians. Accessed October 5, 2021, from http://touringohio.com/history/shawnee.html
Wright, M. H. (n.d.). Cayuga. Accessed October 5, 2021, from http://sctribe.com/history/a-guide-to-the-indian-tribes-of-ok-cayuga/
Wright, M. H. (n.d.). Seneca. Accessed October 5, 2021, from http://sctribe.com/history/a-guide-to-the-indian-tribes-of-ok-excerpts/
Dana M. Kittner: Human Trafficking in North America: A Firsthand Account by John Leeth (HONORABLE MENTION WINNER)
The Ohio Valley in the 17th century was a vast expanse of wilderness, it served as the hunting grounds for multiple Native American tribes including the Shawnee and the Delaware. The French occupied land north and west of the Appalachians fostered a productive fur trade among the Native peoples; trade centered along the waterways of the St. Lawrence Sea Way through the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. As England gained prominence as a world power, she tested her might by engaging in the fur trade within French lands, developing her own network of trade with Native Americans. These economic ventures were supported by England’s king as well as investors abroad, gaining not only raw resources from America, but also a foothold within the interior of the west. Her hopes were to acquire economic resources to help pay off old war debts.
French traders had not established permanent settlements in the Ohio Valley. They built multiple outposts along Native trails to promote ease for the Natives to bring their goods to them. These goods were also stored at the outposts until packed and shipped to France. English trading posts were more permanent; the Natives were expected to bring their goods (furs) to the English posts which were often longer distances from their hunting exhibitions. The establishment of English trading posts within French territory caused tensions to rise between France and England. In addition, English colonists chose to settle within French governed land beyond the Appalachians, causing more tension. France failed to address this migration with any significant consequence to deter their movement. English settlers were not concerned that they were trespassing; they were only interested in obtaining cheap land. King George attempted to limit settlements beyond the Appalachians, not because it was French land, but as a courtesy to the Native Americans as an attempt to honor their hunting grounds. The Native Americans found the encroachment onto their lands as hostile; “they had been driven from many hunting grounds; and many favourite districts which were formerly their dwelling-places, they saw in the possession of strangers.” (Johnson, 2017).
Ongoing struggles between settlers and Native Americans continued to accelerate. Although some attacks had been occurring, a deliberate uprising in the number of attacks began near the outbreak of the French and Indian War. Some of these attacks included burning of property, killing individuals and abducting individuals including small children. Traditionally, captives may be incorporated into a tribe, (adopted), or sold to another tribe or even traded. Detroit had become a network of trade, including human captives who were sold as indentured servants to provide labor. Due to how the trade routes were placed, Native American raids could hit local towns along the way, allowing various “American, and European powers exposed even powerful traders and officials to captivity in rival hands” (Calloway, 1999).
As the French and Indian War continued, so did the practice of selling captives. Natives captured colonial settlers and brought them to Detroit, first, to the French (when they had control of the fort), then the English. British farmers and military leaders purchased these captives and indentured them for years to serve in varying capacities as farm hands, house maids, cooks, etc. Rarely did these captives obtain their freedom.
The captive trade was an arm of Native American campaigns to arrest the tide of American westward settlement and preserve Indian territorial claims to the region. By freein captive-takers and their communities from the pressure of producing all of the items which they required to subsist, the captive trade to Detroit allowed the Shawnees to threaten American settlement of the Ohio Valley even after the Treaty of Paris consigned the area to American control in 1783 (Cloninger, 2012, pp 2).
Natives held hundreds of their prisoners within their own compounds in and around Ohio. Here, the captives stayed and worked for both “Native American and French masters”. Although both the French and English complained about the practice of trading for servitude, both fell into the practice of this trade for their own gains (Johnson, 2017).
British, French, and American settlers and military forces were all accustomed to captive-taking as well as slavery. They assigned different functional capacities to the two categories than did Indian captors in the Detroit captive trade; captives were rarely, if ever, integrated into their captors’ communities, were sought (in the eighteenth century) less for labor than for information, and, if enslaved, were assigned a permanent status not eligible for ransom or redemption (Cloninger, 2012, pp 17 - 18).
The greatest gains for the Shawnees and others included their ability to purchase via trade items unavailable otherwise; including “clothing, weapons and other articles”. Trade in Detroit meant the “Shawnees and their allies could maintain their presence in the Ohio Valley even as American raids on the frontier burned their villages and fields and made sustaining communities through agriculture difficult” (Cloninger, 2012, p 48).
One such captive, having lived briefly in Coshocton in March of 1779, was trader John Leeth. He had gained employment from an Indian trader in Fort Pitt at around the age of 17. He and his employer brought wares into Lancaster, Ohio, and after the owner left, Leeth was left to manage the store. After a few weeks, the Indians in the area were at war with Lord Dunmore. A local Indian family approached Leeth and offered to adopt him into their family, which he accepted, serving as a way of protection against the tribes who were fighting whites. Adoption was not uncommon when a captive was taken from his home (Leeth, 1972).
Leeth endured several skirmishes among the British and Indians; avoided being killed by fellow Indians and ended up being traded into another tribe. His adopted father gave Leeth his freedom as the war in Chillicothe escalated. He ventured off and worked as a fur trader with the Indians. Two years into his independent employment, he was amidst a transaction with another trader when a band of Indians captured the whole group of them, and selling him to another nation of Indians. His new owner allowed him freedom and Leeth chose to hunt and acquire his own furs for trade (Leeth, 1972).
During this time, the French and Indian War had been underway. He and other traders elected to head to Detroit to trade their wares. By this time, Britain had gained control of the fort. Leeth gained employment under a Native Indian trader and wanted to follow him to Sandusky, however, the fort was under martial law and no one could leave “without a pass from the governor” (Leeth, 1972, p 39). Governor Hamiliton inquired of Leeth’s linguistic skills and wanted to hire him, however, Leeth claimed he was unhealthy and would be unable to assist. As a result, Hamilton held him under contempt, and assigned bail in addition to having acquired a pass to leave the fort. While at the fort, Leeth observed (1972):
the Indians produced a large quantity of scalps; the cannon fired, the Indians raised a shout, and the soldiers waived their hats, with huzzas and tremendous Shrieks, which lasted some time. This ceremony being ended, the Indians Brought forward a parcel of American prisoners, as a trophy of their victories; Among whom, were eighteen women and children, poor creatures, dreadfully Mangled and emancipated; with their clothes tattered and torn to pieces, in such A manner as not to hide their nakedness; their legs bare and streaming with Blood; the effects of being torn with thorns, briars and brush.
To see these poor creatures dragged, like sheep to the slaughter, along the British lines, caused my heart to shrink with throbbings, and my hair to rise with rage; and if ever I committed murder in my heart, it was then, for if I had an opportunity, and been supported with strength, I should certainly have killed the Governor, who seemed to take great delight in the exhibition. My business hurried me from this horrible scene, and I know not what became of those poor wretches, who were the miserable victims of savage power (pp 33-34).
Under Governor Hamilton’s charge in 1775, Fort Detroit actively pursued trade among the Native Americans. In doing so, he “encouraged Indian raids on the Ohio Valley, providing Indian Department officials and traders to participate in these engagements, and trading for the human proceeds of those raids at Detroit” (Carver, 1789, p 76). From 1777 and beyond, in his own writings, Hamilton shared that “more than a thousand warriors were out raiding against the frontier, and local records reflected that from that moment until 1795, frontier settlements were subjected to unrelenting raids from parties they believed to have originated at Detroit” (Cloninger, 2012).
Leeth is eventually released from Detroit on bond posted by his employer, and traveled to Sandusky to manage his employers’ store. After a few years, a Delaware Indian persuades Leeth to come to Coshocton but his bibliography is unclear as to why he went. He chose to stay in Coshocton a few years, married a white captive and settled in the Moravian town in Coshocton. When Col. Williams takes over the town, and the Moravians flee to Sandusky. His bibliography continues with ongoing ordeals with upheavals on the frontier but eventually, Leeth settles in southern Ohio as a farmer and lives to be 95 years old (Leeth, 1972).
Although the war ended, the British tried to maintain their hold in the west but were unable to handle the cost of war. As a result, their trading and aid to the “warring Shawnees” ended, including human trafficking (Cloninger, 2012, pp 17-19). Upon the Treaty of Paris, France rescinded their hold on the Ohio Valley, opening it up for settlers of all the colonies. The Shawnee could not keep up with the extreme migration of settlers. “By 1790, more than 130,000 settlers had crossed the Proclamation Line into traditional Native American territories, displacing hunting and trading routes and forcing thousands of Shawnees to migrate out of the region” (Askin & Quaife, 1928). In addition, their own numbers dropped significantly during this time, in part to German Measles, Smallpox as well as the ravages of war.
The significance of John Leeth’s firsthand account testifies to the state of affairs reguarding human trafficking conducted at Fort Detroit during the English occupation during the French and Indian War. Having been abducted a number of times himself, it stands to reason that Leeth’s alarm and concern for the captives superseded his own experiences; Leeth saw the actions of the Shawnee extreme and cruel. In addition, his observations of Governor Hamilton give insight into the loathing nature the English had for the Americans; seeing them as “sheep to the slaughter”, not human beings. Fort Detroit’s success in the trading economy within the Ohio Valley helped contribute to Detroit’s success during and after the war. It also fostered deep connections with the disgruntled Shawnee, promoting them to trade in human captives (Washington & Abbot, 1988, pp 154-155).
. Human trafficking in North America existed far beyond the colonies’ infamous African slave trade. The benefits the Shawnee reaped form engaging in the North American slave trade went far beyond financial gain. By trading captives, scalps, and the fruits of raids on settlements, they were able to gain the upper hand in negotiations with Britain and France as well as deter settlers’ continued expansion west. John Leeth’s experience provides a powerful picture of life on the western frontier of the in the 18th century. Frontiersmen who chose to settle west of the Appalachians faced opposition not only from Native Americans but also the pressure of being caught in a geopolitical power struggle over resource ownership.
References
Askin J.& Quaife, M. John Burnet to John Askin, March 6 1787, in John Askin Papers 1:283; Henry Hamilton to Germain, September 1777, in Consul Wilshire Butterfield, History of George Rogers Clark’s Conquest of the Illinois and Wabash Towns, 1778 and 1779 (Columbus, OH, 1904)
Calloway, C. (1999). The Continuing Revolution in Shawnee Country. In F. E. Hoxie (Ed.), Native Americans and the Early Republic. University Press of Virginia.
Carver, J. (1789). Three years travels through the interior parts of North-America for more than five thousand miles: Containing an account of the Great Lakes ... Philadelphia: Printed and sold by Joseph Crukshank and Robert Bell.
Cloninger, A. M. (2012). 'Taken to Detroit': Shawnee resistance and the Ohio Valley captive trade, 1750-1796. College of William and Mary.
Johnson, W. (2017). The Papers of Sir William Johnson, Vol. 5: Prepared Fur Publication by the Division of Archives and History (Classic Reprint) [E-book]. Forgotten Books. Thomas Gage to William Johnson, New York, July 15 1764.
Leeth, J. (1972). A short biography of John Leeth: With an account of his life among the Indians; (pp. 1-67). Cleveland, OH: The Burrows Brothers Company. Retrieved from https://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/john-leeth/a-short-biography-of-john-leeth-with-an-account-of-his-life-among-the-indians-ala.shtml
Washington, G., & Abbot, W. W. (1988). The Papers of George Washington: October 1757-September 1758 (Volume 5) (Colonial Series) (Vol. 5). University of Virginia Press.
French traders had not established permanent settlements in the Ohio Valley. They built multiple outposts along Native trails to promote ease for the Natives to bring their goods to them. These goods were also stored at the outposts until packed and shipped to France. English trading posts were more permanent; the Natives were expected to bring their goods (furs) to the English posts which were often longer distances from their hunting exhibitions. The establishment of English trading posts within French territory caused tensions to rise between France and England. In addition, English colonists chose to settle within French governed land beyond the Appalachians, causing more tension. France failed to address this migration with any significant consequence to deter their movement. English settlers were not concerned that they were trespassing; they were only interested in obtaining cheap land. King George attempted to limit settlements beyond the Appalachians, not because it was French land, but as a courtesy to the Native Americans as an attempt to honor their hunting grounds. The Native Americans found the encroachment onto their lands as hostile; “they had been driven from many hunting grounds; and many favourite districts which were formerly their dwelling-places, they saw in the possession of strangers.” (Johnson, 2017).
Ongoing struggles between settlers and Native Americans continued to accelerate. Although some attacks had been occurring, a deliberate uprising in the number of attacks began near the outbreak of the French and Indian War. Some of these attacks included burning of property, killing individuals and abducting individuals including small children. Traditionally, captives may be incorporated into a tribe, (adopted), or sold to another tribe or even traded. Detroit had become a network of trade, including human captives who were sold as indentured servants to provide labor. Due to how the trade routes were placed, Native American raids could hit local towns along the way, allowing various “American, and European powers exposed even powerful traders and officials to captivity in rival hands” (Calloway, 1999).
As the French and Indian War continued, so did the practice of selling captives. Natives captured colonial settlers and brought them to Detroit, first, to the French (when they had control of the fort), then the English. British farmers and military leaders purchased these captives and indentured them for years to serve in varying capacities as farm hands, house maids, cooks, etc. Rarely did these captives obtain their freedom.
The captive trade was an arm of Native American campaigns to arrest the tide of American westward settlement and preserve Indian territorial claims to the region. By freein captive-takers and their communities from the pressure of producing all of the items which they required to subsist, the captive trade to Detroit allowed the Shawnees to threaten American settlement of the Ohio Valley even after the Treaty of Paris consigned the area to American control in 1783 (Cloninger, 2012, pp 2).
Natives held hundreds of their prisoners within their own compounds in and around Ohio. Here, the captives stayed and worked for both “Native American and French masters”. Although both the French and English complained about the practice of trading for servitude, both fell into the practice of this trade for their own gains (Johnson, 2017).
British, French, and American settlers and military forces were all accustomed to captive-taking as well as slavery. They assigned different functional capacities to the two categories than did Indian captors in the Detroit captive trade; captives were rarely, if ever, integrated into their captors’ communities, were sought (in the eighteenth century) less for labor than for information, and, if enslaved, were assigned a permanent status not eligible for ransom or redemption (Cloninger, 2012, pp 17 - 18).
The greatest gains for the Shawnees and others included their ability to purchase via trade items unavailable otherwise; including “clothing, weapons and other articles”. Trade in Detroit meant the “Shawnees and their allies could maintain their presence in the Ohio Valley even as American raids on the frontier burned their villages and fields and made sustaining communities through agriculture difficult” (Cloninger, 2012, p 48).
One such captive, having lived briefly in Coshocton in March of 1779, was trader John Leeth. He had gained employment from an Indian trader in Fort Pitt at around the age of 17. He and his employer brought wares into Lancaster, Ohio, and after the owner left, Leeth was left to manage the store. After a few weeks, the Indians in the area were at war with Lord Dunmore. A local Indian family approached Leeth and offered to adopt him into their family, which he accepted, serving as a way of protection against the tribes who were fighting whites. Adoption was not uncommon when a captive was taken from his home (Leeth, 1972).
Leeth endured several skirmishes among the British and Indians; avoided being killed by fellow Indians and ended up being traded into another tribe. His adopted father gave Leeth his freedom as the war in Chillicothe escalated. He ventured off and worked as a fur trader with the Indians. Two years into his independent employment, he was amidst a transaction with another trader when a band of Indians captured the whole group of them, and selling him to another nation of Indians. His new owner allowed him freedom and Leeth chose to hunt and acquire his own furs for trade (Leeth, 1972).
During this time, the French and Indian War had been underway. He and other traders elected to head to Detroit to trade their wares. By this time, Britain had gained control of the fort. Leeth gained employment under a Native Indian trader and wanted to follow him to Sandusky, however, the fort was under martial law and no one could leave “without a pass from the governor” (Leeth, 1972, p 39). Governor Hamiliton inquired of Leeth’s linguistic skills and wanted to hire him, however, Leeth claimed he was unhealthy and would be unable to assist. As a result, Hamilton held him under contempt, and assigned bail in addition to having acquired a pass to leave the fort. While at the fort, Leeth observed (1972):
the Indians produced a large quantity of scalps; the cannon fired, the Indians raised a shout, and the soldiers waived their hats, with huzzas and tremendous Shrieks, which lasted some time. This ceremony being ended, the Indians Brought forward a parcel of American prisoners, as a trophy of their victories; Among whom, were eighteen women and children, poor creatures, dreadfully Mangled and emancipated; with their clothes tattered and torn to pieces, in such A manner as not to hide their nakedness; their legs bare and streaming with Blood; the effects of being torn with thorns, briars and brush.
To see these poor creatures dragged, like sheep to the slaughter, along the British lines, caused my heart to shrink with throbbings, and my hair to rise with rage; and if ever I committed murder in my heart, it was then, for if I had an opportunity, and been supported with strength, I should certainly have killed the Governor, who seemed to take great delight in the exhibition. My business hurried me from this horrible scene, and I know not what became of those poor wretches, who were the miserable victims of savage power (pp 33-34).
Under Governor Hamilton’s charge in 1775, Fort Detroit actively pursued trade among the Native Americans. In doing so, he “encouraged Indian raids on the Ohio Valley, providing Indian Department officials and traders to participate in these engagements, and trading for the human proceeds of those raids at Detroit” (Carver, 1789, p 76). From 1777 and beyond, in his own writings, Hamilton shared that “more than a thousand warriors were out raiding against the frontier, and local records reflected that from that moment until 1795, frontier settlements were subjected to unrelenting raids from parties they believed to have originated at Detroit” (Cloninger, 2012).
Leeth is eventually released from Detroit on bond posted by his employer, and traveled to Sandusky to manage his employers’ store. After a few years, a Delaware Indian persuades Leeth to come to Coshocton but his bibliography is unclear as to why he went. He chose to stay in Coshocton a few years, married a white captive and settled in the Moravian town in Coshocton. When Col. Williams takes over the town, and the Moravians flee to Sandusky. His bibliography continues with ongoing ordeals with upheavals on the frontier but eventually, Leeth settles in southern Ohio as a farmer and lives to be 95 years old (Leeth, 1972).
Although the war ended, the British tried to maintain their hold in the west but were unable to handle the cost of war. As a result, their trading and aid to the “warring Shawnees” ended, including human trafficking (Cloninger, 2012, pp 17-19). Upon the Treaty of Paris, France rescinded their hold on the Ohio Valley, opening it up for settlers of all the colonies. The Shawnee could not keep up with the extreme migration of settlers. “By 1790, more than 130,000 settlers had crossed the Proclamation Line into traditional Native American territories, displacing hunting and trading routes and forcing thousands of Shawnees to migrate out of the region” (Askin & Quaife, 1928). In addition, their own numbers dropped significantly during this time, in part to German Measles, Smallpox as well as the ravages of war.
The significance of John Leeth’s firsthand account testifies to the state of affairs reguarding human trafficking conducted at Fort Detroit during the English occupation during the French and Indian War. Having been abducted a number of times himself, it stands to reason that Leeth’s alarm and concern for the captives superseded his own experiences; Leeth saw the actions of the Shawnee extreme and cruel. In addition, his observations of Governor Hamilton give insight into the loathing nature the English had for the Americans; seeing them as “sheep to the slaughter”, not human beings. Fort Detroit’s success in the trading economy within the Ohio Valley helped contribute to Detroit’s success during and after the war. It also fostered deep connections with the disgruntled Shawnee, promoting them to trade in human captives (Washington & Abbot, 1988, pp 154-155).
. Human trafficking in North America existed far beyond the colonies’ infamous African slave trade. The benefits the Shawnee reaped form engaging in the North American slave trade went far beyond financial gain. By trading captives, scalps, and the fruits of raids on settlements, they were able to gain the upper hand in negotiations with Britain and France as well as deter settlers’ continued expansion west. John Leeth’s experience provides a powerful picture of life on the western frontier of the in the 18th century. Frontiersmen who chose to settle west of the Appalachians faced opposition not only from Native Americans but also the pressure of being caught in a geopolitical power struggle over resource ownership.
References
Askin J.& Quaife, M. John Burnet to John Askin, March 6 1787, in John Askin Papers 1:283; Henry Hamilton to Germain, September 1777, in Consul Wilshire Butterfield, History of George Rogers Clark’s Conquest of the Illinois and Wabash Towns, 1778 and 1779 (Columbus, OH, 1904)
Calloway, C. (1999). The Continuing Revolution in Shawnee Country. In F. E. Hoxie (Ed.), Native Americans and the Early Republic. University Press of Virginia.
Carver, J. (1789). Three years travels through the interior parts of North-America for more than five thousand miles: Containing an account of the Great Lakes ... Philadelphia: Printed and sold by Joseph Crukshank and Robert Bell.
Cloninger, A. M. (2012). 'Taken to Detroit': Shawnee resistance and the Ohio Valley captive trade, 1750-1796. College of William and Mary.
Johnson, W. (2017). The Papers of Sir William Johnson, Vol. 5: Prepared Fur Publication by the Division of Archives and History (Classic Reprint) [E-book]. Forgotten Books. Thomas Gage to William Johnson, New York, July 15 1764.
Leeth, J. (1972). A short biography of John Leeth: With an account of his life among the Indians; (pp. 1-67). Cleveland, OH: The Burrows Brothers Company. Retrieved from https://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/john-leeth/a-short-biography-of-john-leeth-with-an-account-of-his-life-among-the-indians-ala.shtml
Washington, G., & Abbot, W. W. (1988). The Papers of George Washington: October 1757-September 1758 (Volume 5) (Colonial Series) (Vol. 5). University of Virginia Press.
Verlyn Miller: Religious History of the Delaware and Moravians (HONORABLE MENTION WINNER)
The largest religious group in early Coshocton County was probably that of the Moravians and Delaware converts.The history of Indian religion goes way back, ever since the Indians settled in North America. The main tribe that we’re focusing on was called the Lenape Indians,or as we know them , the Delaware Indians. The Delaware tribe was an Algonquin tribe originally from the Delaware River region located in New Jersey. They were forced west into Pennsylvania by the Delaware treaty. But land fraud and settlers pushed them ever westward. At some time or another, they migrated to the Ohio land.
As touching their religion, a huge part of their beliefs was focused on ceremonies. Many of the ceremonies had to do with the different times of the year. Such as ceremonies to receive rain, food, etc.
One ceremony that was practiced among different Indian nations was the Sweat Lodge Ceremony. It was done not only to purify the body, but also to try influencing the spirits. This ceremony consisted of making a fire in a relatively small hut.Several rocks were heated in the fire, and when they were hot enough they were placed beside the fire. Cold water was then poured over the rocks, creating a thick steam that caused the occupant to sweat profusely. When the ceremony was done, they often jumped into a nearby stream to cool off. This method also helped to cure people from sicknesses.
Another part of doing ceremonies was dancing, as was sacrificing. Music was made by drums, rattles, and the occasional flute.
The Delaware were strong believers in spirits. They believed that a magical power dwelled in all living things. They call this power the Manitou.They believed there were many good and evil spirits everywhere. They tried to please the good and appeased the bad.
Medicine men were elders who held much authority over the tribes. They were supposed to be able to heal diseases. Some used witchcraft, others used practical methods. Some medicine men believed that they even had the power to bring rain, or curse their enemies.
The Delaware had many different stories and legends for subjects of all kind.Some had to do with creation, how the world began, where the animals came from, and how the Indians inherited their land. The stories were very important to them, as they passed them down from generation to generation.
One thing about the Indian’s religion that the white man couldn't understand, was how they made it a part of their everyday lives. Instead of only worshipping a certain day, the Indians made their religion a very real part of their lives, even in hunting. They would thank the Great Spirit for the food, and also thank the animal that they killed. Their hunting was mainly for food, not for sport. I guess they didn't try to see who could shoot the buck with the biggest rack! Most of the Indians believed that every plant and animal had a soul. They were careful not to try to offend the spirits by taking food without a good reason, since they thought some of the objects might have great power with the Manitou.
One of the Delaware beliefs that matches Biblical views was that man's soul or spirit, was eternal. Some thought of the afterlife as the Happy Hunting Grounds. They believed that the spirit would then be free from sickness and death.
The Algonquian tribes, which were made up of the Shawnee, Delaware, Ottawa, and the Miami, believed that a guardian, called a totem, lived with every person. Sometimes in the form of a bird, animal, or maybe a spirit.This belief once again didn't make much sense to the white men.
One of the leaders that had a lot to do with religion was the Prophet,also called, Lalawetika,meaning Noismaker.He was the famed Tecumseh's brother. He began teaching new beliefs after a dream he had that warned him against the use of European goods, especially liquor. Because he was a prophet, one who spoke of the future , they listen to him. His campaign aided Tecumseh in fighting against the Europeans.
One thing to note about the Indians was that they all believed something, contrary to modern times where many people don't believe anything, or aren't sure about what they believe.
As time progressed, the Delaware began to consider Christianity. They were curious about this religion, so they decided to experiment with the Moravian, David Zeisberger. The Moravians were a Protestant group that migrated to America from Czech Republic.Among them were those that wanted to spread the gospel among the Indians. David Zeisberger and his assistant John Heckewelder ,were the chief missionaries. The Moravians had been fairly successful in their mission work at Friedenshutten and Gnadenhutten in Pensylvania.These missions were attractive to the new Indian converts because of the peaceful atmosphere. One of the important converts was Glickhican, a former warrior and chief counselor. His Christian name after his baptism was Isaac Glickhican. Later on, he shared the news of salvation with his good friend, chief White Eyes. White Eyes became an avid supporter of the Moravian missions. In fact, he wished that all of his people would come under Christian influence.
Another important convert that impacted the Indians was Echpalawehund, a mighty chief and a member of Netawatwees’s council. His decision to follow Christ caused quite a stir, but also helped the Delawares to make the decision concerning the adoption of Christianity.
In 1772 the Moravian missionaries and quite a few Delaware, moved to the Ohio land, after accepting the invitation of the Delaware already living on the Tuscarawas in Coshocton.Also there had been land conflict in Pennsylvania that aided their decision to move. For one reason or another, the Delaware in Ohio wanted the Moravians to live with them, maybe for political or spiritual reasons. One of their first settlements was Schonbrunn, or Beautiful Springs, located in Tuscarawas county. While establishing this village, the Christian Indians agreed on a set of guidelines to be followed, which included no Indian dances or pagan ceremonies. These guidelines helped to give structure to the new converts. The Indians liked the way the community helped each other, especially the sick, widowed, and the orphans.
During all this, conflict arose between the Christian Indians and the non-Christians. The non-Christians who weren't sure if the converts could still be real Indians. And if so, do they still hold equal rights as Delawares especially in the council? This conflict ended when chief White Eyes convinced them that the Delaware Christians were much needed. The rest of the Indians decided that they could still attain equal rights. So the Delaware and the Moravians settled down to live in beautiful Coshocton. It was excellent farming territory and also had good hunting grounds. The population kept growing, and by 1772, the Delaware occupied the main part of Coshocton.
The Christian Indians had more different work ethics than they used to have.No longer were they depending only on hunting as their source of food, but were also learning how to farm and were learning different trades, such as blacksmithing, masonry, and so forth. The Moravians worked with them daily, teaching them different methods, and helping them to establish a solid foundation. The non-Christians were starting to worry about the fact that more of their leaders were becoming more and more interested in the growing missions. Some had already converted to Christianity. The unbelievers were opposed by White Eyes, who strongly agreed with the Moravians. He believed that,”It would be good if all Indians became believers.”
The missions lived in peace for a number of years, but then conflict started breaking out again. A group of Mingo Indians were brutally killed by some white men which caused the Mingoes to turn hostile toward all white men, thus endangering the Moravian missionaries. The Shawnee and Mingos decided on war against Virginia, and so messengers were sent to warn the missions of these hostile intentions.The Delaware did not join in, and they even tried to protect the white traders in the area. Even when they weren't a part of the warring parties, the Delaware were still harassed, and some even killed by the white men , being mistaken as some of the warring tribes. It didn't take long for war to break out in Ohio. The Delaware leaders had to work hard to restrain their young fame-seeking braves.They wanted to stay neutral in the war. The Delaware were an important link between the tribes and the British Army and the colonies. The fighting Indians ridiculed the Delaware, which was hard on their young men's pride. Some of them wanted to fight with the Shawnees, but chief White Eyes held them back. Finally after the war had ended, there was a time of rest until conflict started again. Some of the white men agreed that because of the Moravians, the Delaware would not fight. Some of them even put their lives on the line to protect David Zeisberger from those seeking to capture or destroy him.
Because of nearby war parties, Christians at the town of Litchtenan either moved to the other Christian towns, or went with the majority to start the new settlement of Salem, 6 miles from Gnadenhutten.The population of Coshocton was slowly beginning to dwindle . The war was taking its toll. Not long after, all the Christians were scattered to other places. It was through this that the Gnadenhutten Massacre happened , killing many Christian Indians , including Isaac Glickhican and Echpalawehund. Scattered to the prairies with almost no supplies, the Christians suffered a major famine. So some took the risk of returning to Coshocton to harvest their ripened food. The majority made it back, but the rest were killed by the militia , simply because they were Indians. Through these murders, the Christians lost many of their brothers and sisters.
And so after the war, Coshocton was once again vacant for a while. Never again would it be the same. Later the Moravians tried once again to establish missions in Coshocton, but they never quite succeeded. And so ends a chapter in history that tells us of the strong faith of the Moravians and Delaware Christians who trusted in God during many tough times. What a powerful testimony!
-The end-
As touching their religion, a huge part of their beliefs was focused on ceremonies. Many of the ceremonies had to do with the different times of the year. Such as ceremonies to receive rain, food, etc.
One ceremony that was practiced among different Indian nations was the Sweat Lodge Ceremony. It was done not only to purify the body, but also to try influencing the spirits. This ceremony consisted of making a fire in a relatively small hut.Several rocks were heated in the fire, and when they were hot enough they were placed beside the fire. Cold water was then poured over the rocks, creating a thick steam that caused the occupant to sweat profusely. When the ceremony was done, they often jumped into a nearby stream to cool off. This method also helped to cure people from sicknesses.
Another part of doing ceremonies was dancing, as was sacrificing. Music was made by drums, rattles, and the occasional flute.
The Delaware were strong believers in spirits. They believed that a magical power dwelled in all living things. They call this power the Manitou.They believed there were many good and evil spirits everywhere. They tried to please the good and appeased the bad.
Medicine men were elders who held much authority over the tribes. They were supposed to be able to heal diseases. Some used witchcraft, others used practical methods. Some medicine men believed that they even had the power to bring rain, or curse their enemies.
The Delaware had many different stories and legends for subjects of all kind.Some had to do with creation, how the world began, where the animals came from, and how the Indians inherited their land. The stories were very important to them, as they passed them down from generation to generation.
One thing about the Indian’s religion that the white man couldn't understand, was how they made it a part of their everyday lives. Instead of only worshipping a certain day, the Indians made their religion a very real part of their lives, even in hunting. They would thank the Great Spirit for the food, and also thank the animal that they killed. Their hunting was mainly for food, not for sport. I guess they didn't try to see who could shoot the buck with the biggest rack! Most of the Indians believed that every plant and animal had a soul. They were careful not to try to offend the spirits by taking food without a good reason, since they thought some of the objects might have great power with the Manitou.
One of the Delaware beliefs that matches Biblical views was that man's soul or spirit, was eternal. Some thought of the afterlife as the Happy Hunting Grounds. They believed that the spirit would then be free from sickness and death.
The Algonquian tribes, which were made up of the Shawnee, Delaware, Ottawa, and the Miami, believed that a guardian, called a totem, lived with every person. Sometimes in the form of a bird, animal, or maybe a spirit.This belief once again didn't make much sense to the white men.
One of the leaders that had a lot to do with religion was the Prophet,also called, Lalawetika,meaning Noismaker.He was the famed Tecumseh's brother. He began teaching new beliefs after a dream he had that warned him against the use of European goods, especially liquor. Because he was a prophet, one who spoke of the future , they listen to him. His campaign aided Tecumseh in fighting against the Europeans.
One thing to note about the Indians was that they all believed something, contrary to modern times where many people don't believe anything, or aren't sure about what they believe.
As time progressed, the Delaware began to consider Christianity. They were curious about this religion, so they decided to experiment with the Moravian, David Zeisberger. The Moravians were a Protestant group that migrated to America from Czech Republic.Among them were those that wanted to spread the gospel among the Indians. David Zeisberger and his assistant John Heckewelder ,were the chief missionaries. The Moravians had been fairly successful in their mission work at Friedenshutten and Gnadenhutten in Pensylvania.These missions were attractive to the new Indian converts because of the peaceful atmosphere. One of the important converts was Glickhican, a former warrior and chief counselor. His Christian name after his baptism was Isaac Glickhican. Later on, he shared the news of salvation with his good friend, chief White Eyes. White Eyes became an avid supporter of the Moravian missions. In fact, he wished that all of his people would come under Christian influence.
Another important convert that impacted the Indians was Echpalawehund, a mighty chief and a member of Netawatwees’s council. His decision to follow Christ caused quite a stir, but also helped the Delawares to make the decision concerning the adoption of Christianity.
In 1772 the Moravian missionaries and quite a few Delaware, moved to the Ohio land, after accepting the invitation of the Delaware already living on the Tuscarawas in Coshocton.Also there had been land conflict in Pennsylvania that aided their decision to move. For one reason or another, the Delaware in Ohio wanted the Moravians to live with them, maybe for political or spiritual reasons. One of their first settlements was Schonbrunn, or Beautiful Springs, located in Tuscarawas county. While establishing this village, the Christian Indians agreed on a set of guidelines to be followed, which included no Indian dances or pagan ceremonies. These guidelines helped to give structure to the new converts. The Indians liked the way the community helped each other, especially the sick, widowed, and the orphans.
During all this, conflict arose between the Christian Indians and the non-Christians. The non-Christians who weren't sure if the converts could still be real Indians. And if so, do they still hold equal rights as Delawares especially in the council? This conflict ended when chief White Eyes convinced them that the Delaware Christians were much needed. The rest of the Indians decided that they could still attain equal rights. So the Delaware and the Moravians settled down to live in beautiful Coshocton. It was excellent farming territory and also had good hunting grounds. The population kept growing, and by 1772, the Delaware occupied the main part of Coshocton.
The Christian Indians had more different work ethics than they used to have.No longer were they depending only on hunting as their source of food, but were also learning how to farm and were learning different trades, such as blacksmithing, masonry, and so forth. The Moravians worked with them daily, teaching them different methods, and helping them to establish a solid foundation. The non-Christians were starting to worry about the fact that more of their leaders were becoming more and more interested in the growing missions. Some had already converted to Christianity. The unbelievers were opposed by White Eyes, who strongly agreed with the Moravians. He believed that,”It would be good if all Indians became believers.”
The missions lived in peace for a number of years, but then conflict started breaking out again. A group of Mingo Indians were brutally killed by some white men which caused the Mingoes to turn hostile toward all white men, thus endangering the Moravian missionaries. The Shawnee and Mingos decided on war against Virginia, and so messengers were sent to warn the missions of these hostile intentions.The Delaware did not join in, and they even tried to protect the white traders in the area. Even when they weren't a part of the warring parties, the Delaware were still harassed, and some even killed by the white men , being mistaken as some of the warring tribes. It didn't take long for war to break out in Ohio. The Delaware leaders had to work hard to restrain their young fame-seeking braves.They wanted to stay neutral in the war. The Delaware were an important link between the tribes and the British Army and the colonies. The fighting Indians ridiculed the Delaware, which was hard on their young men's pride. Some of them wanted to fight with the Shawnees, but chief White Eyes held them back. Finally after the war had ended, there was a time of rest until conflict started again. Some of the white men agreed that because of the Moravians, the Delaware would not fight. Some of them even put their lives on the line to protect David Zeisberger from those seeking to capture or destroy him.
Because of nearby war parties, Christians at the town of Litchtenan either moved to the other Christian towns, or went with the majority to start the new settlement of Salem, 6 miles from Gnadenhutten.The population of Coshocton was slowly beginning to dwindle . The war was taking its toll. Not long after, all the Christians were scattered to other places. It was through this that the Gnadenhutten Massacre happened , killing many Christian Indians , including Isaac Glickhican and Echpalawehund. Scattered to the prairies with almost no supplies, the Christians suffered a major famine. So some took the risk of returning to Coshocton to harvest their ripened food. The majority made it back, but the rest were killed by the militia , simply because they were Indians. Through these murders, the Christians lost many of their brothers and sisters.
And so after the war, Coshocton was once again vacant for a while. Never again would it be the same. Later the Moravians tried once again to establish missions in Coshocton, but they never quite succeeded. And so ends a chapter in history that tells us of the strong faith of the Moravians and Delaware Christians who trusted in God during many tough times. What a powerful testimony!
-The end-
Christine Sycks: Where Paths of Others Lead (Honorable Mention Winner)
The Walhonding River meanders its way through the wooded hills and rich bottom land of western Coshocton County, near the villages of Nellie and Warsaw and US Highway 36. Thousands of years before these present day landmarks, this area had groups of pre-historic peoples and, in the 1700s, Native American cultures. These early societies forged pathways through the wilderness to aid in hunting, gathering, trade, and ease of movement when weather or provisions necessitated it. From these pathways, well-used trails emerged, and along with them, a thriving trade. During this time, Coshocton County was a heavily forested area and home to a plethora of wildlife. This abundance provided the local Native Americans with food, clothing, and barter not only with other tribes, but eventually with the white man. The deer, beaver, fox, black bear, and other animal, plant, and mineral resources provided the goods, and the trails provided the means for this trade between nations and cultures.
Coshocton County was rich with resources necessary to the original occupants of the area in not only water, land, and game, but also a mineral important to their way of life – flint:
“Few counties present a more typical record of aboriginal life than Coshocton. While for the most part the topography is rugged, the broad and fertile valleys of the Muskingum, Walhonding and Tuscarawas furnished ideal territory for the county's first inhabitants. Scattered along these streams, on either side and for their entire distance within the county, are numerous evidences of a prosperous occupation, evidenced by many mounds, village sites, enclosures, etc. An important feature of the archaeology of Coshocton County is the flint quarries from which material was obtained for the manufacture of chipped flint implements. These quarries are located in Jefferson and New Castle townships, on both sides of the Walhonding River (Mills 16).
This dark-colored flint, also known as Coshocton Grey and Coshocton Black was used by Paleoindian, Archaic, and Late Woodland Cultures (Hothem 4). In Ohio History Central’s article, Coshocton County is listed as one of the quarries to which Native Americans travelled, sometimes hundreds of miles, to obtain this mineral so important to their existence.
The Walhonding Trail connected the Delawares of the Scioto with the routes north, roughly following Ohio State Route 3 and US Highway 36. This trail included the area near Warsaw, came within the vicinity of the merging of the Killbuck, passed Bouquet’s spring, and entered the Roscoe area where it met the Muskingum Trail then continued on into Coshocton (Wilcox 78, 79). According to the “Annual Report for 1877 to the 63rd Ohio General Assembly”, The Ohio Land Company was established to promote trade with groups of American Indians and to assure English control, and their agent, Christopher Gist, used both the Walhonding and Muskingum trails in 1750 on an exploring expedition (512). From these beginnings, a system of commerce developed that ultimately changed the very people it served.
According to the Flint Ridge State Memorial Museum in Licking County, there is archaeological evidence of trade between tribes across the Ohio Territory. However, these transactions did not have as great an impact as the goods introduced by the European traders. With the arrival of the white man, many changes came both to the land and to the culture. The Native Americans did not understand “owning” land, yet the settlers came in, claimed, and cleared land for themselves. This deforestation changed the very landscape of the area. Likewise, the traders’ offerings of items previously not available changed the actual culture of the native people. While one could argue that this may have improved their quality of life, the inhabitants became less self-sufficient as they became more reliant on the goods they could acquire from the white man. Clothing and sundries, weapons and alcohol all altered the way of life for the people.
The use of alcohol in trade was a problem in and of itself, and it was something that dishonest traders used in underhanded ways to take advantage of Native Americans. Regulations were put in place concerning the amount of furs that could be traded and for how many kegs of rum. Licensed traders were forbidden to bring rum into Indian towns, but sometimes Indian women were used to do so. Despite attempts at governing the Indian trade, the practice of including alcohol as part of the barter continued (Booth 295).
Native Americans were given intoxicating drink and then were cheated while under the influence. Unscrupulous traders and others made unfair trades and purchases of not only goods, but also of lands. Besides describing the devastating effect of alcohol and its addictive properties affecting the Native Americans, the Ohio Historical Society’s “Historic American Indian Tribes of Ohio 1654-1843” also describes the weakening of their way of life because of other factors:
Europeans offered the American Indians a line of goods which included iron axes, tomahawks, knives, eye-hoes, awls, fish hooks, trade cloth of various colors, woolen blankets, linen shirts, brass kettles, trade silver jewelry, assorted glass beads, and guns and powder. In time, the American Indians became so dependent on trading, their own culture deteriorated. The imported goods of Europe replaced the things they had formerly made for themselves using the resources available in their environment (12).
Of course, once the people had a taste for these imported goods, their desire for them continued and there was no turning back. The demand for the white traders’ goods increased, especially when it came to consumables, such as the need for more powder to keep them supplied with ammunition for their guns. Services were also required that were previously not necessary, like blacksmithing to repair their metal tools and weapons. The Native Americans became more and more dependent on the Europeans flooding into their homeland, and the consequences and changes became more and more ingrained.
Slang used today even dates back to the Indian trade, giving one a quicker, less formal way to quote a price as a ‘buck’ instead of a ‘dollar’. Hunters who had a cache of pelts could trade them for English goods, which had different costs depending upon the demand. One full male buckskin with reddish hair was the highest rate of exchange. So, expensive items, such as an English blanket, cost the hunter four bucks, while other less desirable or easier to obtain items, such as several small knives or a pair of red stockings, were exchanged for just one buck (Ross 20).
The Walhonding Trail brought other cultural changes into the area as well. Missionaries brought new religions and practices. As more and more traders and other white men visited and lived among the natives, the two cultures blended. The two peoples sometimes intermarried, and new languages were introduced to each group as a necessity to aid in communication.
The trails that perhaps started as migration or game trails, later became the means by which the natives traded with each other and then eventually with the white man. These trails, such as the Walhonding Trail, ultimately aided in the European settlement of the area, and were used by them for hunting, migration, commerce, proselytizing, and warfare. Sometimes the marks left by the trails are still visible. Sometimes they still exist, such as present day thoroughfares. These are the busy highways, along which our own population still travels for various purposes near the Walhonding River as did the people of so long ago.
Works Cited
“Annual Reports for 1877 Made to the Sixty-Third General Assembly of the State of Ohio at the
Regular Session Commencing January 7, 1878.” Part I. Columbus, OH, Nevins & Myers, State Printers, 1878. Google Books. books.google.com/books?id=GXZDAQAAM AAJ. Accessed 25 October 2019.
Booth, Russell H., Jr. The Tuscarawas Valley in Indian Days 1750-1797. Cambridge, OH,
Gomber House Press, 1994.
Hothem, Paul. Native American Artifacts: Arrowheads. https://www.ohioarh.org/pdfs/4H%20
Arrowhead%20Artifacts.pdf. Accessed 11 October 2021.
Mills, William C. Archeological of Ohio Atlas Showing the Distribution of the Various Classes
of Prehistoric Remains in the State With a Map of the Principal Indian Trails and Town. Columbus, OH, The Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society, 1914.
Ohio Historical Society. “Historic American Indian Tribes of Ohio 1654-1843.” Redeemer
Classical Christian School. https://www.rrcs.org/Downloads/Ohios%20historic%20
Indians%2038%20pages.pdf. Accessed 25 October 2019.
Ohio History Central. "Flint". https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Flint. Accessed 31 October 2021.
Ross, Jane Barks. The Magic Moccasins: Life Among Ohio’s Six Indian Tribes. Vol. 1.
Columbus, OH, Avonelle Associates, Ltd., 1979.
Wilcox, Frank. Ohio Indian Trails. 3rd Ed., Kent, OH, The Kent State University Press, 2015.
Coshocton County was rich with resources necessary to the original occupants of the area in not only water, land, and game, but also a mineral important to their way of life – flint:
“Few counties present a more typical record of aboriginal life than Coshocton. While for the most part the topography is rugged, the broad and fertile valleys of the Muskingum, Walhonding and Tuscarawas furnished ideal territory for the county's first inhabitants. Scattered along these streams, on either side and for their entire distance within the county, are numerous evidences of a prosperous occupation, evidenced by many mounds, village sites, enclosures, etc. An important feature of the archaeology of Coshocton County is the flint quarries from which material was obtained for the manufacture of chipped flint implements. These quarries are located in Jefferson and New Castle townships, on both sides of the Walhonding River (Mills 16).
This dark-colored flint, also known as Coshocton Grey and Coshocton Black was used by Paleoindian, Archaic, and Late Woodland Cultures (Hothem 4). In Ohio History Central’s article, Coshocton County is listed as one of the quarries to which Native Americans travelled, sometimes hundreds of miles, to obtain this mineral so important to their existence.
The Walhonding Trail connected the Delawares of the Scioto with the routes north, roughly following Ohio State Route 3 and US Highway 36. This trail included the area near Warsaw, came within the vicinity of the merging of the Killbuck, passed Bouquet’s spring, and entered the Roscoe area where it met the Muskingum Trail then continued on into Coshocton (Wilcox 78, 79). According to the “Annual Report for 1877 to the 63rd Ohio General Assembly”, The Ohio Land Company was established to promote trade with groups of American Indians and to assure English control, and their agent, Christopher Gist, used both the Walhonding and Muskingum trails in 1750 on an exploring expedition (512). From these beginnings, a system of commerce developed that ultimately changed the very people it served.
According to the Flint Ridge State Memorial Museum in Licking County, there is archaeological evidence of trade between tribes across the Ohio Territory. However, these transactions did not have as great an impact as the goods introduced by the European traders. With the arrival of the white man, many changes came both to the land and to the culture. The Native Americans did not understand “owning” land, yet the settlers came in, claimed, and cleared land for themselves. This deforestation changed the very landscape of the area. Likewise, the traders’ offerings of items previously not available changed the actual culture of the native people. While one could argue that this may have improved their quality of life, the inhabitants became less self-sufficient as they became more reliant on the goods they could acquire from the white man. Clothing and sundries, weapons and alcohol all altered the way of life for the people.
The use of alcohol in trade was a problem in and of itself, and it was something that dishonest traders used in underhanded ways to take advantage of Native Americans. Regulations were put in place concerning the amount of furs that could be traded and for how many kegs of rum. Licensed traders were forbidden to bring rum into Indian towns, but sometimes Indian women were used to do so. Despite attempts at governing the Indian trade, the practice of including alcohol as part of the barter continued (Booth 295).
Native Americans were given intoxicating drink and then were cheated while under the influence. Unscrupulous traders and others made unfair trades and purchases of not only goods, but also of lands. Besides describing the devastating effect of alcohol and its addictive properties affecting the Native Americans, the Ohio Historical Society’s “Historic American Indian Tribes of Ohio 1654-1843” also describes the weakening of their way of life because of other factors:
Europeans offered the American Indians a line of goods which included iron axes, tomahawks, knives, eye-hoes, awls, fish hooks, trade cloth of various colors, woolen blankets, linen shirts, brass kettles, trade silver jewelry, assorted glass beads, and guns and powder. In time, the American Indians became so dependent on trading, their own culture deteriorated. The imported goods of Europe replaced the things they had formerly made for themselves using the resources available in their environment (12).
Of course, once the people had a taste for these imported goods, their desire for them continued and there was no turning back. The demand for the white traders’ goods increased, especially when it came to consumables, such as the need for more powder to keep them supplied with ammunition for their guns. Services were also required that were previously not necessary, like blacksmithing to repair their metal tools and weapons. The Native Americans became more and more dependent on the Europeans flooding into their homeland, and the consequences and changes became more and more ingrained.
Slang used today even dates back to the Indian trade, giving one a quicker, less formal way to quote a price as a ‘buck’ instead of a ‘dollar’. Hunters who had a cache of pelts could trade them for English goods, which had different costs depending upon the demand. One full male buckskin with reddish hair was the highest rate of exchange. So, expensive items, such as an English blanket, cost the hunter four bucks, while other less desirable or easier to obtain items, such as several small knives or a pair of red stockings, were exchanged for just one buck (Ross 20).
The Walhonding Trail brought other cultural changes into the area as well. Missionaries brought new religions and practices. As more and more traders and other white men visited and lived among the natives, the two cultures blended. The two peoples sometimes intermarried, and new languages were introduced to each group as a necessity to aid in communication.
The trails that perhaps started as migration or game trails, later became the means by which the natives traded with each other and then eventually with the white man. These trails, such as the Walhonding Trail, ultimately aided in the European settlement of the area, and were used by them for hunting, migration, commerce, proselytizing, and warfare. Sometimes the marks left by the trails are still visible. Sometimes they still exist, such as present day thoroughfares. These are the busy highways, along which our own population still travels for various purposes near the Walhonding River as did the people of so long ago.
Works Cited
“Annual Reports for 1877 Made to the Sixty-Third General Assembly of the State of Ohio at the
Regular Session Commencing January 7, 1878.” Part I. Columbus, OH, Nevins & Myers, State Printers, 1878. Google Books. books.google.com/books?id=GXZDAQAAM AAJ. Accessed 25 October 2019.
Booth, Russell H., Jr. The Tuscarawas Valley in Indian Days 1750-1797. Cambridge, OH,
Gomber House Press, 1994.
Hothem, Paul. Native American Artifacts: Arrowheads. https://www.ohioarh.org/pdfs/4H%20
Arrowhead%20Artifacts.pdf. Accessed 11 October 2021.
Mills, William C. Archeological of Ohio Atlas Showing the Distribution of the Various Classes
of Prehistoric Remains in the State With a Map of the Principal Indian Trails and Town. Columbus, OH, The Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society, 1914.
Ohio Historical Society. “Historic American Indian Tribes of Ohio 1654-1843.” Redeemer
Classical Christian School. https://www.rrcs.org/Downloads/Ohios%20historic%20
Indians%2038%20pages.pdf. Accessed 25 October 2019.
Ohio History Central. "Flint". https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Flint. Accessed 31 October 2021.
Ross, Jane Barks. The Magic Moccasins: Life Among Ohio’s Six Indian Tribes. Vol. 1.
Columbus, OH, Avonelle Associates, Ltd., 1979.
Wilcox, Frank. Ohio Indian Trails. 3rd Ed., Kent, OH, The Kent State University Press, 2015.
